Psychology Essay

Outline and assess the use of experiments in social psychology drawing on the cognitive social perspective and one of the other three perspectives in the module (discursive psychological, phenomenological or social psychoanalytic). This essay will provide a description of the experimental method for both the cognitive social perspective and social psychoanalytic perspective. A compare and contrast will be given for the two perspectives in a critical evaluation as an approach to doing research in social psychology. The cognitive social perspective ontology is that, researchers view the person as a thinker in society. Thought processes are believed to have been shaped by and help create the world in which they live in. This perspective has to offer two approaches in the mainstream, social cognition and social identity. Social cognition views the person to be a cognitive miser thereby, being a social thinker and information processing. As a result forms limited opinions based on categorizing and prejudices. Social identity traditions gives emphasis to the socialised thinker whereby, ones’ cognitions are structured by group memberships located in a particular social system. The cognitive social approach follows a statistical methodology by which, researchers gather their results in the form of quantitative data to analyse. This is an experimental, social psychometric method. Researchers conduct studies in which they collect quantitative data and test theory based hypothesis using standard statistical techniques. The researcher’s primary tool is the laboratory – based experiment not confined to the field, such as, the classroom, work place, the crowd. The various techniques include, survey, questionnaires, case studies, and observational methods. As psychology takes part within the individual, this is the primary unit of analysis. The individual’s psychology is significantly affected by the social context. For example, attention to group memberships, inter group relations, a broader social structure that impinge on the individual. The approach is interactionist, which analyse the individual’s cognitions but, also appreciate the way in which these are structured by the social world they inhibit and helped to create. The social psychoanalytic perspective ontology is that, identity is formed psychically and socially in dynamic and inter-subjective relations with others. Human behaviour and consciousness are partly shaped by unconscious motivations. These unconscious motivations are frequently in conflict with conscious thoughts and intensions. Conflict is provoked by unconscious anxiety which is defended against through unconscious defence mechanisms. These defences play an important part in the construction of the individual, social, institutional, cultural lives. The social psychoanalytic approach follows a qualitative and interpretative methodology with the assumption that to understand social life, we need to understand how language is used and how the meaning is constructed. It also takes from psychoanalysis the notion that people are never consciously aware of what unconsciously motivates them or all the meaning of what they say and do. People are viewed as having unique biographies and identity that are made up of psychic defences that are partly developed from their social context. Many researchers explore the methods that people use to make sense of everyday life. For example, the use of narrative interviews because this allows research subjects to talk at length and freely as possible. Researchers seek to analyse contradictions and conflicts that arise from unconscious desires, anxiety and demands of the outside world. This is taken from applications such as, projection, splitting, and projective identification. The focus of analysis is the interconnections between the internal world of the psyche and ones’ understanding of their responses to the actions and on their external world. Meanings can only be understood in relation to a larger whole and a psychoanalysis is informed by the whole interview plus all other data collected in relation to the case, such as, the researchers field notes. There is no established psychoanalytic method because psychoanalysis is a clinical method and not a research method. Stanley Milgram 1963, (cited in Wendy Hollway, Helen Lucey, and Ann Phoenix) a pioneer in social psychology in the research of obedience to authority. Milgram ran a series of studies under different conditions to determine†¦ Milgram lead his subjects to believe that the studies were investigating the ffects of punishment on learning. The experimental subjects had to administer electric shocks to people whom they were unaware were actually his accomplices. The subjects were ordered to increase the voltage whenever the learner made a mistake. They were completely unaware that the electric shocks were not delivered, and that they were only lead to believe so. The subjects level of obedience were measured against a 30-point incremental scale of intensity of electric shocks delivered. The subjects received an ‘obedient’ status if they managed to deliver shocks throughout the experiment without refusal. However, if the reverse was true and refusal was encountered earlier on in the experiment, a ‘disobeyed’ status was granted. Results showed that even as subjects objected to administering the shocks as they heard pleas of distress, they still carried on after stern and insistent instructions were made. Milgram found that more than 60 per cent continued to administer the shocks at the higher end of the scale. As controversial as this type of research is especially of what is ethically acceptable today, Milgram found that the subjects were not negatively affected. He not only interviewed and debriefed the participants but, also introduced a follow up questionnaire a year later. The questionnaire confirmed Milgram’s assumptions that the participants felt positively toward the experiment (Milgram, 1974, cited in Wendy Hollway, Helen Lucey, and Ann Phoenix). By carrying out this type of research, Milgram has attached scientific authority to the phenomenon, ‘obedience to authority’. His research clearly demonstrates that people will obey authority even when they are aware of the distress and cruelty it may cause. Kurt Danziger, 1985 (cited in Wendy Hollway, Helen Lucey, and Ann Phoenix) agrees to a certain point that statistical methodology is effective in discovering a solution to problem areas. His argument is that statistical methodology is effective but limited. This is given that the context of a specific practical problem requires an unambiguous solution within limited confines. For example, in an experiment to investigate whether the surrounding of an individual interferes with their performance in the completion of a given task. The surrounding environment can be manipulated and the participant’s performance on the task can be recorded. The conclusion of the experiment is limited to the confines of the experiment and does not apply to any given situation outside of that. The experimental approach is useful in instances where it is difficult to find out what the true feelings of a given subject are. Colin Leach, 2005 (cited in Wendy Hollway, Helen Lucey, and Ann Phoenix ) conducted research into this area, in particular on the topic of Schadenfreude: pleasure felt at another’s failure. Schadenfreude is not openly expressed and can be difficult to detect. In this case, the experiment revealed hidden feelings by exposing causal relations and meaningful patterns among variables. Experiments allow the researcher to develop a model of the proposed processes and to test the implications of theories. This reveals what lies beneath the surface either what one does not wish to admit to, or is unaware of their unconscious thoughts and feelings which motivate their behaviour. The social psychoanalytic approach keeps the person more holistic rather than contextual. Therefore, techniques such as free association allow for the individual to uncover their deepest thoughts without restrictions or confines. For this reason, this type of approach is less intrusive compared with social cognitive approach in finding out what motivates an individual. The analysis of data, thereafter involve breaking down the material into themes and recognising a pattern. Hereby, is a chance to recognise any underlying motivations or unconscious thoughts and fears that is influencing the current behaviour. The social cognitive approach by comparison could be criticised for unethical considerations in their application to uncover the same data being unconscious motivations/thoughts. To conclude, the two approaches show how different perspectives will produce different knowledge due to the difference in which they frame their object of analysis. Experiments are good at revealing thoughts and feelings people do not wish to reveal or are unable to.

NCFE Level 2 Certificate for children and Young Peoples Workforce Essay

UNIT 1 1.1 Observe and record aspects of the development of a child or young person- All early years setting observe children everyday. There are many different ways of doing this. Knowing what to look for is important most settings will observe children’s development to see how they are doing in the following areas: PHYSICAL- Children’s physical development is about the way that they use their hands, move and balance and also manage skills such as kicking a ball. Most play involves physical development; you may be able to observe a child’s physical development as they are playing e.g. a child pushing a pushchair or a child playing football. COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE- Most children will talk as they play if they are using speech. Babies and toddlers might use body language or gestures to communicate with us. Children’s speech and language is important to their overall development. PERSONAL, SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL- Quite a lot of information can be learnt about these aspects of development while children are playing. Observing children’s personal social and emotional development means looking at whether they have strong relationships and whether they enjoy being with others. Being with others is important for children. Even young babies show their happy while being with others and make eye contact. UNIT 1 1.2 Identify different observation methods and know why they are used- We observe children because we use the information we record to plan activities that are relevant for the child or change your setting in some way to reflect what you have learned about the children as a group to help them develop. There are different ways of observing a child for example: with yours eyes, your ears, or through planned activities. We also record the observation in different ways, i.e.- Focused observation- A focused observation is where you observe what a child is doing recording every detail, this helps record the development of the child and when linked with the EYFS we can identify what stage the child is at. Snapshot observation- A snapshot observation is where you witness a child’s development with your own eyes or hear it with your ears that was not adult led but child initiated. You will then record it and link it with the EYFS and then you could plan an activity that would help their development in that particular area. Daily diary- In my setting a daily diary record is kept of what a child has done through the day if the child was a baby it would include what time their feed was, what they ate and what time they slept and for how long. It would also include what the child has shown interest in that day and what activity the child was encouraged to be involved in. This is shared with the parent on a daily or weekly basis so the parents can see how the child is doing in the nursery. UNIT 1 1.3 Support assessments of the development needs of a child or young person- Once I have observed a child, I will then think about what I have learnt about the child’s development, interests or needs. This is done so that setting’s can plan activities and resources. I will think about what a child is doing in relation to the early year’s foundation stage. Confidentiality is very important, I must make sure that any information about the child cannot be seen by people that are not working with the child or do not have reason to see it. When I observe a child it is important that I stay as objective as possible, This means really focussing on what the child is doing at the time I am watching them and trying to forget what I may already know about them. [pic] 1.4 Suggest ways the identified development needs of a child or young person can be met in the work setting- There are many ways a work setting can be meet indentified development needs in children. They can reflect on the child’s interest and views, it is important to base our ideas around what we have seen the child doing and enjoying, activities to support a child’s development do not work if the child does not like them or are not interested. Providing a challenge will help the child to make progress, this means any ideas for activities must be exciting. Play is an important way of helping children to develop skills without realising it. They can also make sure that in the work setting all planning is flexible as a child may come in and not feel like playing or might have other ideas about what they would like to do, Also working with parents so they have consistency by doing the same at home as they do in nursery. UNIT 1 2.1 Carry out activities with a child or young person to support their holistic development- I have carried out an activity with three children ages 8 months-1year. I first planned the activity of what I would need and do, as you can see blow, while doing the activity I done observations on all three children but focused on my key child, this observation has also been included for you to see. After doing my activity I then sat down and looked at my plan and observation, I evaluated it and wrote down next step. Activity plan Type of activity: Holistic / Sensory. Activity: Exploring the treasure basket. Number of children: 3 focused on one child. Material needed: Treasure basket, Holistic objects. Activity: I will take three children; one would be my focused child. I will then sit them in a circle with the reassure basket and holistic objects in the middle. I will then encourage the children to explore and feel the different objects. I will also observe how they react and record it. 2.2 Record observations of the child or young person’s participation in the activities- Focused observation Child A has pulled a sponge out of the treasure basket, she starts to pull it with both hands, child A then holds the sponge in her right hand and starts to wave it about. Child A then reaches into the treasure basket with her left hand and starts to pull out the material, a staff member says â€Å"what’s this† and child A watches the staff and copies them with the material pulling it with both hands. Evaluation While doing my activity I done an observation on my focused child. Looking at my observation and what the child did during the activity I can see that child A likes to feel objects with her hands. Child A also learns by watching others and then copies them. My next steps for child A is to introduce sensory activities e.g. exploring mash potato as she could feel and taste at the same time. UNIT 1 3.1 & 3.2 Describe the different transitions children and young people may experience- Explain how to give adult support for each of these transitions- Children and young people may experience different transitions such as: 3.1 NEW SIBLINGS- When a child or young person’s parent’s have a new baby it could leave the older child feeling like they are not the baby anymore, they may feel jealous or even upset because they may not be getting as much attention as before, this could make the child start attention seeking, they may start acting up e.g. lying or not listening. 3.2 I can support a child if they are feeling this; I could try explaining to the child about the positive side to having a sibling, and would also empathise with the child explaining why they feel the way the feel. 3.1 TOILET TRAINING- This could make a child feel frustrated because he/she might not be able to tell you they need the toilet on time, or they may not recognise the signs. This will cause the child to have an accident and may then feel embarrassed. 3.2 I can support them by encouraging them to use their words to communicate to an adult. I could also use flash cards to learn the child what a toilet looks like and how to say toilet. I would praise the child when they go to the toilet e.g. verbally or using stickers, this will encourage the child to want to do it again to receive more praise. 3.1 MOVING AWAY- This could make the child frustrated because they are being torn away from either their favourite place or even their friends. When a child moves away they may feel lost or scared, lonely or even anxious this could possibly end in depression and make the child’s behaviour worse in nursery or school. 3.2 I would support a child or young person moving away by making the transition a happy experience, I would explain what is going to happen and when, then try and make them understand why it is happening. 3.1 STARTING A NEW SCHOOL- When a child moves school they may start to feel sad, upset or lost that they are leaving all their friends behind and may not see them everyday anymore, they might not understand why they are leaving. Moving school could make the child feel nervous because they do not know anyone and will have to make new friends, the child could feel anxious because they don’t know what to expect. This could make them feel shy and not want to go to school. 3.2 I can support the family in advance preparing them for the change. I can explain to the child what is going to happen so it’s not a big shock for them. I could suggest to the parent to take them to visit the new school setting so they know and recognise the surroundings they are going to. UNIT 1 4.1 Explain how a work setting can encourage children and young people’s positive behaviour- A work setting can encourage children and young people’s positive behaviour by: †¢ Following behaviour policy. †¢ Providing a simulating and challenging environment. †¢ Positive behaviour reinforced through praise and rewards. †¢ Having clear boundaries. †¢ Developing positive relationships. †¢ Meeting individual needs. †¢ Giving children choices. †¢ Having adult role model. †¢ Listening to children and valuing their opinions. †¢ Encouraging children to resolve conflict. †¢ Following plans for individual behaviour. 4.2 Demonstrate how children and young people are encouraged to engage in positive behaviour- As we are role models, we must always express positive body and verbal language and support rules. We should be confident and professional so that children will become self confident and express positive behaviour. Giving verbal praise and rewards such as stickers to a child’s positive behaviour will encourage them to continue this way. Rewards also go a long way in promoting positive behaviour in a child. We should always lead by example. We should use encouraging words, be approachable, understanding and show empathy in order to encourage positive behaviour. When there is a good relationship between the adult and child, and the child is behaving positively, the child receives lots of good attention. This encourages them to repeat the same behaviour. In the same way, if a child is behaving in a way where they will get negative attention, they normally want to change their behaviour so they can receive positive attention again. UNIT 1 4.3 Reflect on own role in promoting positive behaviour in children or young people- My setting has clear rules and boundaries that I will meet at all times. I will follow the behaviour policy within my setting, this will encourage positive behaviour. I would encourage the children to be kind with other people by maintaining a good environment. I will also meet the children’s needs and plan activities to meet those needs. I will set an example in myself and will always have and use positive behaviour, as I am a role model to them. I will reward the children that have showed positive behaviour through verbal or stickers to praise them. I would use encouraging words and make sure I provide a simulating environment. Also I will make them feel safe and secure when being left by parents. 5.1 Review effectiveness of own contribution to the assessment of the developmental needs of a child or young person- By observing a child, I can see how the child is progressing. When I’m observing a child I will be looking for development in the seven different areas covered in the EYFS which are: P.S.E.D- Personal, Social and Emotional development. C.L- Communication and Language. P.D- Physical Development. L- Literacy. M- Maths. E.A.D- Expressive Art and Design. U.W- Understanding the World. Once the observation is linked with one of these areas I can then write my next steps and plan activities around that area that will aid the child’s development further. 5.2 Review effectiveness of own role in supporting the child or young person’s development- When supporting the child’s development, I will have observed the child looking at all the areas of the EYFS. I would have then linked it. After I would have wrote my next steps. This was effective because I can see what stage and in what area within the EYFS the child is at. I then planned an activity that would be challenging. This helped me to know what recourses I needed for the activity and also helped the child further their development in a fun and happy way. UNIT 1 5.3 Identify changes that can be made to own practice in supporting child and young person development- The changes that can be made in my setting are communication skills, time keeping and working with parents. This will help support the child’s development because these will help the child become more confident and have structure and routine while in the nursery this is important as a child will be unhappy and will not be able to learn if they don’t have these. UNIT 2 1.1 Describe the common types of fractures- A fracture is simply a broken bone. When a bone is broken, the nerves, blood vessels and muscles around the brake will be damaged as well. Often a fracture may not break the full bone in young children as their bones are more flexible than adults. This sort of fracture is sometimes referred to as a greenstick fracture. Fractures can be one of two main types closed or open. Closed fractures- This is the most common type of fracture, this is where the skin around the fracture does not break. Open fracture- This is where there is an open wound at the site of the fracture. Sometimes the bone sticks out of the wound; this creates a big risk of infection. Dislocation- A dislocation is where the bone separates from a joint, this can occur easily in children. Never tug or pull on a child’s arm or hand, and never pick them up by their hands or arms. 1.2 & 1.3 Describe how to manage a fracture or dislocation- You will usually be able to tell quite easily if a child has a fracture or dislocation. In children that are older they are likely to tell you that their arm or leg hurts. Alternatively, look for- †¢ Swelling around the injured area. †¢ Unnatural position. †¢ Open wounds or breaks around the skin. †¢ Tenderness. †¢ Loss of power / Ability to move. My role is to make sure I maintain the injured part in the most comfortable position while waiting for the ambulance. UNIT 2 2.1 Describe how to recognise and manage head injuries- A head injury can result in Concussion, skull fracture or cerebral compression. I would be able to recognise a head injury by the following signs: †¢ Swelling. †¢ Bruising. †¢ Nausea. †¢ Vomiting- on more then one occasion. †¢ A bump. †¢ Severe drowsiness. †¢ Blurred vision. †¢ Fits. †¢ Bleeding from any part of the head. †¢ Change in the type of cry of a baby. †¢ Difficulty in walking or talking. †¢ Being pale and sweaty. †¢ Pupils of the eyes uneven in size. †¢ Aggression and irritability. †¢ Clear or blood-stained fluid from the ears or nose. †¢ Changes in behaviour. †¢ Swollen soft spots on a baby’s skull. Often after a child has had a bang to the head they might just have a bump and feel dazed and will not need to go to the hospital. It is still important I monitor the child closely for about six hours after the accident, and be alert for any changes for a few days. I will inform and give clear instructions to the parents about what to look for after a bang to the head and encourage them to seek medical help if they are worried. Bleeding can happen straight after the injury or a few days later, or blood can build up slowly. If any of the signs of a head injury occur I would call for an ambulance and the child’s parents immediately. While waiting for the ambulance I would control any external bleeding by applying pressure with a pad, lay the child down, if the child is unconscious act as if there is also an injury to the neck, I will also make note of the symptoms e.g. vomiting, pupil size, how long the child has been or was unconscious for. Etc. 2.2 Demonstrate how to manage a suspected spinal injury- Spinal injuries are unusual in young children But can happen if a child falls from a height. It is very important you do not move or attempt to move the child as any slight movement can cause serious damage, including paralysis. I will steady and support the neck and head, and dial 999 for an ambulance. UNIT 2 3.1 Describe how to manage and infant and a child with foreign bodies in their eyes, ears and nose- There as many things that can get stuck in these places e.g. crayons, glitter and beads. Beads fit into these places incredibly well. When something is stuck up a child’s nose or ear, if there is enough sticking out to get a firm grip on e.g. a crayon, I will gently try to ease it out I will not touch it as the result will be it becoming further stuck in. If it is not possible to ease out I would simply call for the first aider to take the child to the nearest NHS walk-in centre or minor injuries unit. 3.2 Describe how to recognise and manage common eye injuries- Most children will manage to get foreign bodies in their eyes such as: Paint Dust Sand Eyelashes Glitter Fluff These sorts of things can easily be removed. I would sit the child down and put on a pair of disposable gloves. I will then Gently pull down the lower eyelid and any remove any visible foreign bodies with either a clean wet piece of tissue or a small piece of wet gauze swab. Yet if this fails to works I will pull the upper eyelid over the lower lid ad try to flush it out with tears. If it still remains in the eye I will then try to wash the eye with water by: Positioning the child’s head over the sink or bowl with their eye open, facing the bottom of the sink or bowl. Using a plastic cup try to pour water on the eye from the tear duct outwards. If none of this works and the eye is still red and the child still says it is painful I will seek professional help. UNIT 2 4.1 Describe how to recognise and manage chronic medical conditions including: sickle cell anaemia, diabetes and asthma- The most common chronic health conditions you may come into contact with are asthma, sickle cell anaemia and diabetes. Sickle Cell Anaemia is a genetically inherited condition and is common in children of an African-Caribbean heritage. Sickle cell anaemia is a blood disorder that red blood cells become distorted and can block vessels in the body. The signs and symptoms are lack of energy and being breathless also they would look yellow in colour due to jaundice and they would be in severe pain. Straight away I would consult a doctor and my line manager I would recode these symptoms and everything else in my accident book. I would also inform the parents. Diabetes is a lifelong medical condition. Most children who have diabetes will need insulin injections. If a child has too much or not enough insulin, they are at risk of getting hypoglycaemia (hypo attack) or hyperglycaemia (hyper attack). A child going into ‘hypo’ may be: drowsy, pale, sweating, confused, trembling or irritable. The child needs to balance the insulin by having sugar I can give this to the child directly in the mouth or a drink of orange juice for example. Usually the child will not need any more treatment and will respond quickly to sugars that are easily absorbed. A ‘hyper’ attack is caused by lack of insulin medical help is needed, I will call for an ambulance. A child going into ‘hyper’ attack may shows signs of the following: Very thirsty, drowsy, passing urine very often, have a fruity-smelling breath, vomiting, eventually become unconscious. Asthma attacks can be brought on by: exercise, stress, very cold air and pollen or dust. Asthma is caused by the airways in the lungs closing up. This makes it difficult for the child to take breaths. I would recognise this as the child wheezes and breathing in/out becomes more difficult. A child with asthma will usually use one or more inhalers to control it. They should a lways have their inhaler available at all times to help them deal with an attack. Often a child will use their inhaler before exercise. If an asthma attack is left untreated, a child can die. If a child is having an asthma attack I would make them comfortable. Sit them in a quiet area away from other children and seat the child in the position most comfortable to them. I will also help them to use their inhaler – usually a blue reliever. I will encourage the child to breath slowly, if the attack does not subside, then I’ll call for medical help. UNIT 2 4.2 Describe how to recognise and manage serious sudden illnesses including: Meningitis and Febrile convulsions- Meningitis- In most settings children may become ill during the day. Some cases the development of a high temperature, vomiting and a rash are just parts of mild illness. However, in a few cases they can be the start to a life threatening illness. If I was worried bout the child’s symptoms, I would seek medical help. Babies and young children can deteriorate very quickly. I would be able to recognise a child with meningitis by these common symptoms: †¢ Stiff neck. †¢ Reaction to light. †¢ High temperature. †¢ Headache. †¢ Bulging fontanelles in babies. †¢ Irritability. One sign of meningitis is a rash that does not fade under pressure, I would perform the glass test to detect whether the rash fades or not. A fever with a rash that does not fade under pressure is a medical emergency. If I suspect a child has meningitis I will call an ambulance immediately and inform the parents, while waiting for the ambulance I will stay with the child and make them feel comfortable. Febrile convulsions- I would be able to recognise a child with febrile convulsions as the child may be experiencing, loss of consciousness, a short spell of not breathing, heavy dribbling, neck and back arching, body rigid and shaking and heavy dribbling. I will perform the following to prevent the child from choking or injuring themselves: I will put the child on their side making sure the airway is open, I will clear any surroundings objects, if the child is hot I would help to cool them by opening a window or putting a fan on or I will remove some clothing, I would place the child in recovery position, also sponge the child down and if this is their first convulsion or does not stop after three minutes then I will dial 999 for an ambulance. UNIT 2 5.1 Describe how to recognise and treat the effects of extreme cold for an infant and a child- If body temperature drops to below 35 degrees, hypothermia will cause a slowdown in the working of the body and can lead to tissue damage and death. I will look for: – Low body temperature. – If the child is being sluggish or unconscious. I will treat the child who is suffering the effects of extreme cold by bringing tem into a warm room or close to a warm body, I will wrap the child in a blanket or coat, I would call for an ambulance and encourage them to drink warm drinks. 5.2 Describe how to recognise and treat the effects of extreme heat for an infant and a child- It is easy to recognise when a child is too hot, they may show signs of: heavy sweating, tiredness, feeling sick and generally ill, high temperature, rapid breathing, febrile convulsions in babies and small children. When the body temperature is over 40 degrees this can cause heatstroke and can result in brain damage or death. Heat exhaustion is more common in children, especially if they have been playing out in hot weather. It can be life-threatening if a baby or young child overheats. If this happens I would move the child out of the heat and give them plenty of water to drink, I would cool them by applying cool water or cool cloths, I would remove excess clothing then if there is no improvement, or if I suspect heatstroke I will call for an ambulance. UNIT 2 6.1 Describe how to safely manage an incident involving electricity- If there is an incident where a child has been in contact with electricity, the priority is to isolate the source. If possible I will switch the power off at the mains or master switch. If this is not possible I could get a wooden broom or chair and push the child well away from the electric source. I do not want to rush in to get hold of the child; this will result in me also being injured. 6.2 Describe first aid treatments or electric shock incidents- Exposure to electricity can stop the heat. If this is the case then I will start ABC: Airway. Breathing. Circulation, and call for an ambulance. The places where the electricity has entered and left the body may have burns that need first aid treatment of lots of cool water. But I will only give this after the power source has been switched off or the child has been safely removed. 7.1 Describe how to recognise the severity of burns and scalds to an infant and a child and respond accordingly- There are three factors that affect the severity of a burn or scald: – Size, witch it usually described as a percentage. The palm of the hand is about 1% of the body skin. – Location, a burn to the face, feet, hands or genitals are more serious. – Depth. Burns occur when the skin is exposed to heat or chemicals, for example fire, sunburn, friction, acid, bleach or garden chemicals. Scalds happen when the skin is exposed to hot fluids, for example boiling water, steam or hot fat. Burns and scalds are usually divided into three categories depending on how much damage they cause to the skin and underlying tissues. First-degree or minor burns are superficial and affect only the outer layer of the skin, making it red and sore. Second-degree or partial thickness burns extend below the surface of the skin. The skin looks raw and blisters form. Third-degree or full thickness burns damage the entire layer of the skin and underlying tissues to affect nerves, muscle and fat. The skin looks pale and waxy. First-degree burns can be recognized by slight swelling and redness. In second-degree burns, the skin looks red raw and blisters will appear. Black or waxy skin indicates a third-degree burn and that the burn is serious. Serious burns can cause shock. A scald in the mouth or throat, may cause swelling and make breathing difficult. Scalds are caused by liquids e.g. water or hot drinks. Burns can be caused by fire, electricity, the sun, chemicals or very hot materials such as metals. UNIT 2 7.2 Describe how to treat burns and scalds to an infant and a child- I would seek medical attention for any child with a burn that is: †¢ Causing serious pain. †¢ On the face or hands. †¢ A chemical or electrical burn. †¢ Deep or blistering. †¢ Accompanied by inhaling smoke or fumes. †¢ No larger than a postage stamp. First-degree burns can be treated at home and usually heal in seven to ten days. Second- and third-degree burns are much more serious and require medical attention as there is a risk of infection and shock developing. I would act immediately to a child who has a burn or scald; I would cool the burn with cold water- preferably under gently running water, for at least 10 minutes. I will remove any clothing that is not stuck to the burn. I would cover the burn with a sterile or clean dressing, or even a clean plastic bag; this will keep the air out of the burn. If there is any burn or scald on a baby or young child I will call an ambulance straight away. 8.1 Describe how poisons enter the body- Poisons can entre the body by being swallowed; for example cleaning fluids, tablets. Also be being breathed in by fumes and dust. Or it can entre the body through the skin e.g. fluids, powders. Here are some common examples of items that can be poisonous: Cleaning fluids can burn the mouth and digestive system when took if in unlocked cupboard. Sleeping tablets from unattended handbag can make a child unconsciousness and possibly result in death. Poison ivy plants can cause severe irritation and blistering to the skin. UNIT 2 8.2 Describe how to recognise and treat an infant and a child affected by common poisonous substances, including plants- Each poisonous substance will have a different effect on a child’s body, depending on what the poison is and how it has entered the body. When I find a child who I suspect has been poisoned I will look around for evidence like: †¢ Open drug containers. †¢ Open chemical containers. †¢ Unusual smells on child’s breath. †¢ Unusual smells, such as gas fumes. I would recognise if a child has been poisoned as they may show signs of: †¢ Vomiting. †¢ Pain. †¢ Burns around the mouth. †¢ Blisters or swelling. †¢ Drowsiness or unconsciousness. †¢ Severe rash or itching of the skin. I would treat the child by dialling 999 for an ambulance, I would try to find out what the child has taken, how much and when or what they have been in contact with and I will give my evidence to medical help. If the child is unconscious, I will check the airway and put the child in the recovery position. If the child has been poisoned by a poisonous plant I will rinse the skin under running water. 8.3 Identify sources of information that provide procedures for treating those affected by poisonous substances- UNIT 2 9.1 Describe how to recognise the severity of bites and stings to an infant and a child and respond accordingly- It is important I recognise when medical intervention is needed and make sure the child gets it. Most bites and stings are quite minor and just need cleaning or stings removing and reassurance. The most dangerous reaction a child would get from a sting or bite is if they are allergic to the sting or bite. Allergic reactions can develop very quickly. I would look for: †¢ Difficulty in breathing. †¢ Severe swelling at the site. †¢ Swelling of the face. †¢ Redness and raised rash. If a child had this type of reaction I would call for an ambulance immediately and inform there parents. Bites are usually easy to recognise. If a child has been bite I may see teeth marks or puncture wounds. Any cuts will usually be jagged. The bites also usually will have bruising with them, so I would see that the area is red and it may be slightly swollen. If I see the bite is badly bleeding or the child is seriously injured I will control the bleeding and call for an ambulance. But if the bite is not that serious I will wash the area thoroughly and apply a cold pact to the area to ease the swelling. I will also apply a dressing if there are breaks in the skin. I would recognise an Insect stings as the area would be red and may have mild swelling. Also the child would be complaining that it is painful and itchy. I would move the child away from any further risks of stings. I would check the area that has been stung and remove any sting by scrapping away from the area with my fingernail or card for example. I will wash the area well with soap and water and apply a cold pack to reduce any swelling and ease the pain. ———————– Support the assessment of children and young people Using the assessment framework Avoiding Bias Maintaining confidentiality

Russian Orthodox Icons Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Russian Orthodox Icons - Essay Example In each case the artefact has a clear and deliberate connection with Christian doctrine. The way the icon is constructed reveals its function within a Christian context: â€Å"The image is reduced to a minimum of detail and a maximum of expressiveness. The great majority of figures are represented with their faces turned towards the congregation, for the importance lies not only in the action and interaction of the persons represented, but also in their state, which is usually a state of prayer.† Ouspensky and Losskym, 1982, p. 27) The inclusion of the person looking at the icon is a particular feature of this art form, and it explains why so many believers developed a strong and intimate connection with particular icons. In the Russian Orthodox area there is has been particularly large selection of different icons available over many centuries, and this demonstrates how complex Russian religious experience has been. The icons in Russia are not just images: they are accompanie d by an inscription: â€Å"Without the identifying inscription there can, in general, be no icon, just as there can be no icon without the representation: worship is directed equally both to the image and the name.† (Uspenskii, 1976, p. ... .† (Ouspensky and Lossky, 1982, p. 37) As time went on, and the memory chain of tradition grew longer, special guide books or podlinniks were made, which recorded all the relevant saint’s days, and holidays, with specific colors and instructions for recording particular scenes and personalities. The Orthodox Church, more than any other branch of Christianity, has kept more faithful connections with the earliest Christian calendar, and the special services and saints days that belong to it. The icons all have their special places in the Orthodox annual rituals. From the second half of the 16th century the aim of the official Orthodox and Catholic churches to strengthen popular religiosity coincided with the demarcation and broadening of the sphere of religious art. (Tarazov and Milner-Gulland, 2002, p. 201) In the 17th century there was increasing attention to the ornamental function of the icon, and to the fashioning of elaborate frames, using craft skills rather than fi ne art skills. Because the Renaissance left Russia largely untouched, there was a continuation of medieval styles in the painting. In the 18th to the early 20th centuries there was a dramatic increase in the volume of secular craft icon painting. In this period there was increasing contact with the Western and the icon makers began to adopt Western styles. The features that now appeared in icons were â€Å"chiaroscuro, foreshortening, direct perspective and various illusionistic effects in general† (Uspenskii, 1976, p. 24) All of the most popular Western master painters from previous centuries were eagerly imitated, including Michelangelo, Leonardo, Raphael, Cranach etc. (Tarazo and

Civil society and religious figures in Saudi Arabia - literature review

Civil society and religious figures in Saudi Arabia - review2 - Literature review Example Finally, some see civil society as a loose public arena for deliberation and reason rather than ascription or inherited advocacies (Hermida, 2013; Karskens, 2008). Throughout the spectrum of definitions, the most salient characteristic of civil society is that it represents the interest and benefit of the general population. The definitions vary in terms of nature (bureaucratic and institutional versus grassroots), origin (government-established or spontaneously organised), and source of funding (government or private). The overlap with state bureaucracy and funding often raises the question as to the independence of civil service organisation. Arab monarchies generally see no problem with CSOs pursuing the civil goals of government, as government goals should be aligned with the people’s best interest (Bellin, 1994). Western countries on the other hand feel that CSOs must be a party separate from the government and free from intervention, in order to truly represent the welfa re of the public free from political interest. It is evident that the concept of civil society continues to remain ambiguous, and the particular meaning given to it shall be imbued with the context of the society in which the civil society organisation operates. 2. Soviet Union Democracy transformation in 1998 There are two notable aspects of civil society in the context of post-soviet Russia, according to Jagudina (2002). One is the â€Å"doubled† character of the Soviet public sphere, and the other is about solidarity through exchange of favours. The so-called double character refers to the co-existence of (1) a ‘rigidly regulated economic and social framework’ under Soviet leadership, and (2) the ‘dynamic disparate networks and local environments’ comprised of families, neighbours, colleagues, and close acquaintances. When the rigid political framework collapsed in the late 1980s, the public sphere evolved into a vacuum that was quickly turned int o a space where new informational technologies took over, fostering confrontation, ambiguity, and manipulation by clerics and activists (Jagudina, 2002). The other aspect is that of â€Å"solidarity through exchange of favours.† The aforementioned disparate networks of families and close associates operating beyond the range of the heavily regulated social framework, and provided reference points and communication channels for circulating information that were considered more reliable than official channels which towed the government line (Jagudina, 2002). This â€Å"traditional society† is comprised of â€Å"networks of solidarity based on primordial communities, kinship and patronage† (Roy, 2005, p. 1006). In the early 2000s, after the collapse of the Soviet regime, there eventually arose 250-300 organisations that perceived themselves to be the new burgeoning Russian civil society, springing from the underground networks that former operated under the radar o f the Soviet regulatory framework. Explicitly political, these organisations provided a critical voice in government by airing the grievances of the broad segment of the population. These organisations operate in an environment where mass media is unsupportive, state authorities are unresponsive, a general

Write an essay stating why the US isnt really a democracy

Write an stating why the US isnt really a democracy - Essay Example However, there has been a consistent debate as to whether US can truly be considered as the democracy. The history of US indicates various legislative efforts, social and political divisions as well as racial bias which may not be otherwise accepted under democracy. Though there are no characteristics defined for democracy however, equality as well as freedom are considered as two important characteristics of democracy. Apart from this, democracy also need to ensure that the control is upward i.e. sovereignty reside at the lowest level of authority, political equality to each citizen as well as the social norms under which only those acts are considered acceptable which falls under the first two principles. As such democracy provides a complete system wherein political, social and economic rights of the citizens are taken care of and are considered as equal. (Levine,115) One of the key arguments in suggesting that US is not a democracy is based upon the fact that US is a republic. In democracy, people decide the matters directly through deliberations and town hall type meetings however, in a republic, the same is done through elected representatives of people. As such there is a fundamental difference between a democracy and republic and US being a republic may not be purely a democracy in its true nature. The Constitution of the country do not directly allows referendums and direct public opinion seeking in policy development matters. Despite this, some States however, engage into direct referendums and ballots to allow public to directly exercise their power to influence and create policies against issues of public nature. This argument is also based upon the assumption that the framers of the constitution were not actually in favor of providing public a direct mean of expressing their opinion. It is believed that the framers of constitution were of the opinion that the public may not have the required wisdom to express their opinion

Class Grading System Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Class Grading System - Assignment Example This ensures that any emergency that may prevent students from timely submission does not hamper the over all grade. All assignments shall be due 9am on Monday; a grace time of 3 hours shall be given, and accordingly, from 12 noon onwards, no assignments shall be considered for submission, consequently, the student would get a '0' in that assignment. Class Quizzes: Quizzes shall be given through out the semester/term, and graded out of 10. For each 5 quizzes, best 4 shall be chosen for instance if 10 quizzes are conducted then 8 best (individual scores) would be counted towards the final calculations. This again ensures a safe cushion i.e. a bad day does not spoil the students' final grade. Term Project: This would represent the learning of the entire course and would carry 10% of the grade (or more depending on class understanding and project extensiveness). Projects would have assigned milestones (with milestone deadlines). Milestone deadline shall serve as a DEADline and a submission late by every 3 hours would lose one point for instance a 6 hour late submission would attain a maximum of 8 marks. Collection & Grading: All assignments and deliverables shall be due on the first working day of the next week to ensure that the students get ample time over the weekend to have their work up to the mark. The grading shall take place by the instructor or his/her assistant over the week and return for correction of any errors within 3 days, and the final grades shall be communicated over the weekend through email, notice-board, and/or grade-sheet circulation in the class. Rule of Absences: No more than 2 weeks absences shall be allowed to any student during the term. These absences are marked considering that any inability causing the student not to attend classes (such as any sickness or personal issues) do not, on a general note, exceed 2 weeks. For cooping up with the loss work, students would be provided extra counseling sessions, which may vary in number depending on student's ability to grasp the missed out work. References Linn R., and Gronlund N. (2000) Measurement and Assessment in Teaching. (7th edition) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice

Problems that UEL Students Expect to Have Essay

Problems that UEL Students Expect to Have - Essay Example This research paper seeks to analyze the projected problems by the students in UEL in their quest for a successful career and how well they can plan to overcome them. Sampling method was used in the collection of data utilising the concept of questionnaires (Marshall 2005). Students within the sampled groups were expected to answer the given questions in the questionnaire by responding genuinely, and then analysis was done using qualitative and quantitative research methods as in the report. Methodology The quantitative research method incorporated the giving out of questionnaires to thirty students of UEL. Thirty questionnaires were prepared and handed out to selected students from the UEL institution. The method of sampling of the student was done at random to minimise on level of bias (University College London Hospitals 2006). Questionnaires are believed to reduce bias in the sense that questions are presented uniformly as there is no middle man intrusion (Ackroyd and Hughes 1981 ). At the same time, they are not expensive (Williams 2003). Questionnaire The greatest aspiration of many students is to develop and acquire a career of their own choice. The intention of this questionnaire is to obtain the views and opinions of students in UEL concerning how well prepared they are to face the career world. I sincerely request for your honesty in answering the questionnaire and presenting it back Questionnaire {Check in your box of choice with (X)} Code 1. What is your gender orientation? Male Female 1 2 2. What is your age? 17-20 21-23 24-26 27-29 30 and above 1 2 3 4 5 3. What is your race? Black White Asians Locals 1 2 3 4 4. What is your level/year of study? First Second Third Fourth Postgraduate 1 2 3 4 5 5. What is your course of study? Diploma Bachelor’s Degree Post Grad. Dip. Masters Degree 1 2 3 4 Specify your course of study, (e.g. Bachelor Business Strategic Marketing) ____________________________________________________________________ 6. (i) Do you intend to look for a job or further your studies after this level? (a) Look for a job 1 (b) Further Studies to the next level 2 (ii) If your answer is (a): What sort of employment will you seek for. Public Sector 1 Private Sector employed 2 Private Sector Self Employed 3 Others 4 Specify________________________________________________ (iii) If the answer is (b), how do you expect to finance your Studies? Government Sponsored 1 Get Scholarship 2 Self Sponsored 3 Others 4 Specify_________________________________________________________________________ 7. How would you react when you find your course of study is not marketable in the job field? Give up the career and follow another career line 1 Specialize in my line of study 2 Give in to misfortune and relax 3 Others 4 Specify________________________________________________________________ 8. What strategy would you apply in job searching? Networking with friends for opening 1 Utilize the internet connectivity 2 Walk from organiza tion to organization 3 Wait for any advertisement on newspapers 4 All of the above 5 Specify______________________________________________ 9. After getting employed, how do you expect to get promoted in your job? Work hard in the assigned work 1 Work and study relevant short courses to perfect my field of work 2 Don’

BIO Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

BIO - Essay Example In particular, I led a group of officers to survey and install security application. In that accord, I completed a site survey for a new secure yard for FSR and STSs. Using my technical expertise, I was able to restore a malfunctioning Pick to Light (PLT) System. Specifically, the system had lost its audio, and I was able to detect the defect through troubleshooting using a particular program and restore it to its previous functionality. In the absence of a video for the TOC users, I relied on my knowledge and skills to replace four Video Matroxs to restore the videos, and the TOC operators used them. My efforts and expertise has not gone unnoticed since I received a TOC coin and awarded for excellence work performance. Specifically, this happened while working as a TDY to Basrah where I successfully cleared 35 alarms in the TR room within two minutes of customer calls. In addition, I installed four TV monitors in the TOC for better security coverage of the embassy compound for customers. In short, this illustrates my incredible knowledge, expertise, and experience in the technology-enhanced security

Target Market Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Target Market - Essay Example In order to respond to this issue, Mary Kay has representatives and consultants all around the world who are not only involved in research and development of new products but in the marketing and sales of the same. The brand identify of Mary Kay products has put it as a luxury brand that is known for standard and quality. The company’s own efforts are such that they try to brand each product as an individual brand that has to be taken care of with its own separate stream of marketing strategies. Like every cosmetic product, the motivation to use and buy is more psychological than material. People have the need to feel loved and appreciated and they like to adapt in a way that’s acceptable. The benefit of self-esteem with prestige is what Mary Kay sells. Of course, a brand will only sell on that basis when the message can be reflected in their product quality as well (Viverios & Negus, April 2009). Mary Kay enjoys exposure to a large customer base through its diversified brand and products range. It has a total of about 200 premium products that have been divided under 6 classes or categories, targets both men and women, is vertically well integrated and has a range of skin and hair care products sold as drugs and ailments too (Datamonitor, 2008). In 2008, Mary Kay was present in about 35 countries across the globe. Mary Kay exploits this advantage by having employed millions of independent beauty consultants around the world and having built a separate manufacturing plant in China to meet the needs of Asian customers (Bhattacharya & Prinyanka, 2008). As compared to its biggest competitor Avon and other competitors such as L’Oreal, companies that operate in a multinational and dynamic platform, Mary Kay lacks the ability to operate at such massive scales. While these companies have the ability to reach out customers in the farthest regions and

Reading comprehension Essay Example for Free

Reading comprehension Essay ABSTRACT. sion The (STRAT), authors evaluated instruction, strategies followed reciprocal same-age the effectiveness by practice + SA) (STRAT of explicit in teacher-led reading whole-class activities, peer-tutoring comprehen activities or cross-age peer-tutoring activities (STRAT + CA) on 2nd and 5th graders reading comprehen sion and self-efficacy For perceptions. 2nd multilevel graders, analyses revealed sig nificant STRAT and STRAT + CA effects; however, the effects did not last after fin the program. Fifth graders on the posttest better than ishing icantly in all 3 experimental  control group their conditions Results peers. performed signif con also showed tinued growth for the STRAT and STRAT + CA conditions until at least 6 months after students finished the program. Moreover, on both the posttest and retention test, 5th graders in the STRAT + CA condition reported significantly fewer negative thoughts Key words: prehension, related to their elementary reading reading proficiency. multilevel education, strategies, modeling, peer tutoring, reading com self-efficacy RESEARCH, decoding instruction has had a long and continuous of attention and debate. However, a hiatus can be recorded in the study of history reading comprehension. Two decades ago, strategy intervention research was in instruction received renewed atten vogue, but only recently has comprehension with current studies building on what was accomplished in the 1980s. Now, tion, the challenge in reading comprehension research is to increase the efficacy of in struction in elementary schools by identifying the instructional practices and ac tivities that best serve to develop childrens self-monitoring for comprehension IN READING (Snow, Burns, Griffin, 1998). 291. This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 292 The Journal Previously, students Once reading comprehension could decode, was considered comprehension was of Experimental Education to be a process of mastery: assumed to occur automatical ly (Dole, 2000). Research, however, has shown that good readers are character ized by more than just decoding skills. Cognitively based views of reading com readers use a flexible that proficient repertoire of prehension emphasize and regulating activities (Dole, Duffy, Roehler, comprehension monitoring  includes both cognitive and metacognitive Pearson, 1991), which strategies (Baker Brown, 1984; Paris, Wasik, Turner, 1991; Pressley Allington, 1999; Pressley, Johnson, Symons, McGoldrick, Kurita, 1989). Cognitive strat egies can be defined as mental or behavioral activities that increase the likelihood such as rereading, activating prior background knowledge, of comprehension, and adjusting reading speed (Van Den Broek Kremer, 2000). Metacognitive strategies can be specified as self-monitoring and regulating activities that focus on the product and the process of reading, support  readers awareness of com prehension, and assist in the selection of cognitive strategies as a function of text difficulty, situational constraints, and the readers own cognitive abilities (Lories, 1998; Van Den Broek Kremer; Weisberg, Dardenne, Yzerbyt, 1988). There is no reason to believe that all elementary students spon Unfortunately, and skills knowledge taneously develop essential cognitive and metacognitive Research reviews, however, reveal Allington, 1999). (Hartman, 2001; Pressley that monitoring and regulating skills and effective application of relevant strate can  gies be taught (Dole et al. , 1991; Pressley, 2000; Pressley et al. , 1989). In this Jones, 1992; Block, 1993; respect, recent studies (Baumann, Seifert-Kessell, Dole et al. ; Dole, Brown, Thrathen, 1996; Pearson Fielding, 1991) and re of the National Reading Council (U. S. ; Snow et al. , 1998) underscore the ports value of explicit cognitive and metacognitive reading strategy instruction, for instruction takes the mystery out of the reading process, helping comprehension students assume control (Raphael, 2000, p. 76). As to the practice of teaching observation re  reading, however, little has changed since Durkins (1978-1979) instruction. The dominant instructional practice is into comprehension students about text content, still very traditional, characterized by questioning with little explicit attention to the strategic aspects of processing and compre hending text (Aarnoutse, 1995; Paris Oka, 1986; Pressley, Wharton-McDon 1986). ald, Hampston, Echevarr? a, 1998; Weterings Aarnoutse, search In addition to the importance of explicit reading strategies instruction, research the effects program of an innovative  on the cognitive, and social, (Belgium) comprehension for reading The study was school children. emotional by a supported of elementary development Research-Flanders. Research grant of the Fund for Scientific Assistantship to: Hilde Van Keer, Department be addressed should of Education, Correspondence Hilde. VanKeer E-mail: Henri Dunantlaan Ghent Ghent, 2, 9000 Belgium. University, This study was part of a investigation long-term in Flanders instruction of @ UGent. Be This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions  293 Van Keer Verhaeghe has revealed that the development of reading competence in the elementary can be encouraged by interaction with peers (Almasi, 1996; Fuchs, Fuchs, grades Mathes, Simmons, 1997; Johnson-Glenberg, 2000; Mathes Fuchs, 1994; Mathes, Torgesen, Allor, 2001; Palincsar Brown, 1984; Rosenshine Meis ter, 1994; Simmons, Fuchs, Fuchs, Mathes, Hodge, 1995). The traditional teacher-led evaluation interaction seems of pattern teacher question-student an to achieve insufficient actual response-teacher increase in comprehension,  higher level cognition, and the application of self-regulation strategies (Cazden, 1986). Relying on the teachers interpretive authority causes students to become passive learners. to become Conversely, students readers, self-regulated need to take an active role and to recognize and resolve their own discrepancies with texts (Almasi; Gourgey, 2001). Research has demonstrated that this kind of ac tive reading behavior is promoted by providing students with opportunities to en gage in peer-led interaction about texts. More particularly, it has been shown that, through  students discussions, peer implement, conferences, evaluate, and peer modify and tutoring, strategies, activities, cooperative and discuss of transfer strategies (Klingner Vaughn, 1996; Klingner, Vaughn, Schumm, 1998; Pal incsar Brown, 1984). Moreover, discussions between peers provide opportu nities for metacognitive (Palincsar, David, Winn, exchanges and modeling 1991). In this way, childrens knowledge about reading and reading strategies, as well as their ability to apply relevant strategies, increases. Despite these convincing research results, student-centered  discussion with regard to is anything but common practice in most classrooms reading comprehension Stevens, (Alvermann, 2000). In the present study, we attempted to narrow the gap between prevailing in structional practice and research evidence in the field of reading comprehension instruction. An innovative approach, blending research-based strategies instruction and to practice opportunities strategic the from practices research fields, was designed, aforementioned implemented, More specifically, the innovations comprised two cornerstones: and evaluated. explicit reading  reading in peer-tu toring dyads. Peer tutoring was introduced to stimulate student interaction be cause of the opportunities it creates to practice metacognitive skills. It should be noted that studies of peer tutoring in reading comprehension and thinking skills are relatively rare (Topping, 2001). Following research on peer-assisted learning strategies (e. g. , Fuchs, Fuchs, et al. , Mathes, 1997), c? as s wide peer tutoring (e. g. , Greenwood, 1991; Greenwood, Carta, Hall, 1988), and studies focusing on practicing reading strategies in small cooperative groups (e.g. , Brown, Pressley, Van Meter, Schuder, 1996; Palincsar Brown, 1984; Pressley et al, 1992; Stevens, Madden, Slavin, Famish, 1987; Stevens, Slavin, Famish, 1991), the present study involved training in comprehension strategies rather than tutoring students in word-level oral reading or low-level comprehension activities. Peer tutoring can be defined as people from similar social groupings who are This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 294. The Journal of Experimental Education not professional  teachers helping each other to leam, and learning themselves by teaching (Topping, 1996, p. 322). This definition covers a series of practices, in cluding peers as one-on-one teachers to provide individualized instruction, prac tice, repetition, and clarification of concepts (Topping, 1988; Utley Mortweet, 1997). Peer tutoring is structurally embedded in the curriculum and classroom organization and is characterized by specific role taking: One person has the job of tutor, while the other is the tutee (Topping, 1996). Moreover, effective peer tu tutor training (Bentz Fuchs, 1996;toring is characterized by a preceding Fuchs, Fuchs, Bentz, Phillips, Hamlett, 1994; Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, Phillips, Karns, Dutka, 1997). With regard to the dyad composition, two variants can be tutoring refers to older students tutoring younger stu distinguished. Cross-age in same-age tutoring, children are paired with classmates. The variant in dents; students alternate regularly between the tutor and tutee role is called rec iprocal same-age tutoring (Fantuzzo, King, Heller, 1992). Peer tutoring has been successful in a variety of curriculum areas and age groups. Research has indicated positive effects on academic achievement for both tutor and tutee (Cohen, Kulik, Kulik, 1982; Fantuzzo, Davis, Ginsburg, 1995; which Fantuzzo, Polite, Grayson, 1990; Fantuzzo et al. , 1992; Greenwood et al. , 1988; Mathes et al. , 2001 ;Simmons et al. , 1995). In this respect, peer tutoring is not only about transmission from the more able and experienced to the less able (Topping, 1996); tutors seem to benefit even more from tutoring than students who receive et al. ; Lambiotte et al. , the individual tuition (Fitz-Gibbon, 1988; Greenwood 1987). This can be explained by the nature of tutoring a peer: Tutors are chal to engage in ac lenged to consider the subject fully from different perspectives, to identify and correct errors, to reorganize and clarify their own tive monitoring knowledge and understandings, and to elaborate on information in their explana tions (Fuchs Fuchs, 2000). Because the application of reading strategies re quires actively monitoring the reading process, peer tutoring may be considered a powerful learning environment for the acquisition of reading comprehension the reading process of another reader might facilitate the ac skills. Monitoring of self-monitoring skills and, hence, the adequate application of reading quisition (1978) the strategies. From a theoretical perspective, consistent with Vygotskys ory of socially mediated learning, the object of the dyadic interaction in the peer tutoring activities is the joint construction of text meaning by appropriate appli cation of relevant reading strategies to a wide range of texts and, in the long term, the intemalization and consistently self-regulative flexible use of strategic pro cessing whenever encountering texts that are challenging to comprehend. Furthermore, positive effects also have been found on tutors and tutees social and emotional functioning, especially with regard to self-efficacy perceptions, self-concepts, social relationships, and attitudes toward the curriculum areas treated in the tutoring sessions (e. g. , Cohen et al. , 1982; Fantuzzo et al. , 1992; Fantuzzo et al. , 1995; Greenwood et al. , 1988; Mathes Fuchs, 1994). Regard This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 295 Van Keer Verhaeghe is an especially self-efficacy  important construct, ing reading comprehension, that attention to strategy instruction alone is not sufficient to produce max given imum reading growth (Casteel, Isom, Jordan, 2000). Affective factors result in deeper engagement with text, which translates into superior achievement. Henk and Melnick (1995) asserted that self-efficacy judgments can affect an individ uals overall orientation to the process of reading; influence choice of activities; affect continued involvement, amount of effort expended during reading, and the in pursuing text comprehension; And ultimately affect degree of persistence achievement. Our aim in the present intervention study was to design, implement, and evalu ate complex sets of instructional interventions in authentic classrooms to enhance second and fifth graders reading comprehension achievement and self-efficacy perceptions toward reading. The specific contribution of the present study is the focus on peer-tutoring variants as instructional techniques to practice the use of reading. More strategies. comprehension we specifically, concentrated on an ex of practicing reading strategies in (a)  plicit comparison teacher-led whole-class activities, (b) reciprocal same-age peer-tutoring activities, or (c) cross-age peer-tutoring activities within the same study for two different age groups. So far, cross- and same-age tutoring have not been compared within the same study, and there is only indirect reference material from themeta-analysis of of the relative merit Cohen and colleagues (1982) with regard to the differential impact. Furthermore, in the present study, we extend prior research by (a) sampling a larger number of studies; Participants than is typically the case in strategies-based comprehension (b) supporting teachers to implement the innovations in the natural classroom con text with the participation of all students of all abilities during an entire school year, which represents sensitivity to the interventions ecological validity; (c) tar geting students in the early and intermediate grades, populations that deserve more attention with regard tometacognitive and strategic behavior; (d) including maintenance long-term measures; (e) using standardized reading comprehension tests not directly linked to the treatment; and (f) applying multilevel modeling to  take the hierarchical nesting of students in classes into account. Based on a review of the research literature and the aforementioned lines of reasoning, we formulated the following hypotheses for the study: Hypothesis teacher-led 1. Explicit whole-class reading or peer-tutoring graders reading comprehension prehension strategies instruction, activities, achievement more followed enhances by practice second and in fifth than traditional reading com instruction. 2. Practicing reading strategies in cross-age or reciprocal same-age peer-tutoring activities generates larger positive changes in second and fifth  Hypothesis graders during comprehension whole-class achievement than more traditional activities. This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions teacher-led practice 296 The Journal Education of Experimental is more obvious for sec 3. Improvement in reading comprehension Hypothesis ond and fifth graders functioning as tutees and tutors, respectively, in cross-age peer-tutoring activities than for their peers alternating between the tutor and tutee roles in reciprocal same-age activities. Hypothesis 4. Cross-age and reciprocal same-age peer-tutoring activities second and fifth graders self-efficacy perceptions toward reading more ditional teacher-led instructional techniques. improve than tra 5. Improvement in self-efficacy perceptions toward reading is more Hypothesis obvious for second and fifth graders functioning as tutees and tutors, respective ly, in cross-age peer-tutoring activities than for their peers alternating roles in activities. same-age reciprocal Method Design We used a pretest, posttest, and retention test control group design. To ensure the ecological validity of the interventions, we included complete naturally com posed classes. Participating classes were assigned to one of four research condi tions. In the strategies-only condition (STRAT), the experimental intervention in cluded explicit reading strategies instruction, followed by practice in teacher-led whole-class settings. The experimental same-age (STRAT + SA) and cross-age included identical instruction in the (STRAT + CA) peer-tutoring conditions same cross-age dyads, or cross-age with combined strategies, In this respectively.  tutoring. Finally, class-wide we respect, included practice students a control in reciprocal experienced either characterized group, or same-age same by tra activities without explicit strategies instruction ditional reading comprehension or peer tutoring. Classes were randomly assigned to the STRAT or tutoring con ditions. Within the tutoring conditions, teachers opted in favor of the STRAT + SA or STRAT + CA condition according to the readiness of a colleague to col laborate in the STRAT + CA activities. We selected control group classes to match the experimental teachers  and classes. Because the classes were naturally composed and the assignment of classes to the conditions was not completely randomized, the design can be regarded as quasi-experimental. Participants In total, 444 second and 454 fifth graders from 44 classes in 25 different schools throughout Flanders (Belgium) participated in the study. Except for some small-scale initiatives of individual schools, peer tutoring was fairly unfamiliar at the time of the study. Other cooperative or interactive techniques, such as This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 297 Van Keer Verhaeghe and circle time, were better known and more group work, group discussion, fre used. quently Except for one inner-city school in the STRAT condition with mainly a low so status and ethnic minority population, all schools had a predomi cioeconomic Flemish population. The majority of the children were from middle nantly white, class families. Except for one second-grade class including only girls, there was approximately an equal gender distribution: In second- and fifth-grade classes, on = = 18.55) of the students were boys. At 16. 54) and 48% (SD average, 53% (SD the beginning of the school year, second graders were aged, on average, 7 years and 4 months, and fifth graders were aged, on average, 10 years and 5 months. The majority of the students (402 in second and 422 in fifth grade) were native speakers. Because elementary school students in Flanders are not grouped by ability, classes are considered academically heterogeneous, which was con firmed by the pretest reading comprehension measures. Class size ranged from 15 to 28 students, with an average of approximately 21 (SD = 3.50) in the second grade, and from 10 to 30 students in the fifth grade, with an average of approxi = mately 22 (SD 5. 00) students per class. Second- and fifth-grade teachers had, on Dutch average, 11 and 20 years of teaching experience, respectively. Four of 22 second grade and 5 of 22 fifth-grade teachers were men. None of the teachers had previ ous experience in explicit reading strategies instruction or peer tutoring. We selected participating teachers from a group of approximately 100 second and fifth-grade teachers who were willing to take part in a long-term research study. All interested teachers received a questionnaire concerning their teaching practices and opinions regarding learning and instruction. The first step in the teacher-selection we selected ative and interactive to pace according was procedure student-oriented instructional or content. who Furthermore, of the schools of matching and classes this specifically, in applying experienced cooper and able to build in differentiation we based the throughout Flanders with More questionnaire. were techniques graphical distribution teachers on based teachers regard to selection on the geo and on the possibility teachers teaching  experience, beliefs, and instructional practice; class size; students age; gender distribution; and dominating mother tongue. Table 1 shows the number of participating class es and students Measurement per condition. Instruments study, we used standardized tests to measure students reading achievement and decoding fluency. We administered question comprehension naires with respect to reading attitude, perceived competence, and preoccupation with attributions and self-efficacy perceptions toward reading. In the present Reading tests. We comprehension using Dutch standardized measured test batteries reading  comprehension (Staphorsius Krom, This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions achievement 1996; Verhoeven, 298 The Journal TABLE 1. Number of Participating Education of Experimental Classes and Students Grade Fifth Second Condition Classes STRAT + SA STRAT + CA STRAT Control 6 5 Note. cross-age 163 124 444 22 = explicit whole-class STRAT teacher-led peer-tutoring 22 101 69 177 107 454 66 8 Students 91 3 group Total Classes Students reading comprehension strategies instruction followed by practice in = activities; SA activities; CA = same-age peer-tutoring  reciprocal activities. 1993), which were selected based on the tests well-established psychometric the built-in adaptation to different student abilities, and the fact characteristics, that the tests address aspects of comprehension covered by the strategies part of occasion, we administered the experimental program. At each measurement with an increasing level of difficulty. The questions tiple-choice tence, the referral contained pretest second-grade asking relation for between short six the meaning words, stories, of each a word, the connection followed the meaning between by of sentences, tests 5 mul  a sen and the theme of a text. We determined the scores by the number of correct answers. The second-grade post- and retention tests consisted of four and three different stories, respectively, each followed by 4 to 10 multiple-choice questions, with a total of 25 questions per test. More specifically, questions concerning the content of a text (demanding a clear understanding of the meaning of words and sen tences, the referral relation between words, the connection between sentences, and the theme of the text) and questions concerning the communication between the author and the reader of the text (e.g. , objective of the author, intended target group, the authors attitude toward the matter raised) could be distinguished. Both types of questions required integration of information on different textual levels (words, sentences, paragraphs, text) and were more or less equally distrib uted over the 25 questions per text. After discussing an example, students com pleted the tests individually. To examine the tests internal consistency, Cron bachs a coefficients were calculated on our own data, yielding high reliability scores of . 90 (n = 432) for the pretest, . 84 (n = All) for the posttest, and . 83 (n = 385) for the retention test. In fifth grade, the tests consisted of three modules of 25 multiple-choice ques tions each. All students took the first module of the test. Depending on these first This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 299 Van Keer Verhaeghe results, students further completed an easier or more difficult module. Two types of questions requiring the integration of information on different textual levels could be distinguished: questions concerning the content and questions concern ing the communication the author  between and the reader. an After stu example, dents completed the tests individually. Scores were determined by summing the correct answers. For the reading comprehension test, IRT-modeled scores were on Item Response Theory (IRT), a common scale had been de available: Based allowing us to veloped for different grades and test versions (easy-difficult), or more difficult part of the test. Because they are all on the compare the easier same scale, the IRT-modeled scores also allow for direct comparison of the re occasions. To verify the relia sults a student obtained at different measurement  bility of the three modules of the pre-, post-, and retention tests, we computed Cronbachs a coefficients on our own data. Table 2 indicates that reliability of all measures comprehension was acceptable. test. We included second graders decoding fluency, which is a Decoding fluency combination of accuracy and decoding speed (Chard, Simmons, Kameenui, 1998), as an additional variable, because fluency can be considered a mediating factor on students reading comprehension achievement (Pressley, 2000). A stan dardized test (Brus, 1969) was administered individually to  all second graders; students were asked to read unrelated words with an increasing level of difficul ty during exactly 1min. The score was determined by counting the number of words read correctly. We collected fluency data in second-grade classes only be cause it is recognized that reading fluency is generally well developed at the end of the third grade (Bast Reitsma, 1998; Sticht James, 1984) and because it was too time to test consuming all fifth graders as well. individually on self-efficacy perceptions and related causal attributions. With Questionnaire  in the framework of the present study, we developed a questionnaire to measure TABLE a Coefficients 2. Cronbachs Comprehension for the Fifth-Grade Reading Tests Measurement occasion Posttest Pretest Test module n n an a .81 1 .76 2 3 .66 Note. At each measurement used. 468 167 271 occasion a different Retention test a .72 .76 .74 test with 442 256 175 an increasing This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions .76 .79 .77 41 level of difficulty 403 362 was 300. The Journal Education of Experimental  students preoccupation with positive or negative thoughts or related causal attri butions with regard to their reading ability. Inspired by the work of Ames (1984), we asked children to report how often such thoughts crossed their mind before, during, or after reading. Factor analysis revealed that success attributions and positive thoughts about ones own reading competence on the one hand and fail ure attributions and negative self-efficacy perceptions on the other hand are very (1984) and closely related. This result is in line with the findings of Marsh and Debus (1984), who stated that self-attribu  Marsh, Cairns, Relich, Barnes, can tions seen be as or expressions indicators ones of or self-concept self-effi we constructed two scales reflecting negative and cacy perceptions. Therefore, about ones own reading abilities. It should be positive thoughts, respectively, noted that capturing the incidence of self-efficacy-related thoughts does not give a direct measure of students self-efficacy perception but rather indicates the de a student is preoccupied with such thoughts. In this respect, related to (meta)cognitive activity than data collected gree to which data are more means the directly of more  traditional a However, questionnaires. self-concept by inci high dence of negative self-efficacy-related thoughts can be considered an indication of a low self-efficacy perception, but such a conclusion cannot be drawn from a low incidence of positive self-efficacy-related thoughts. The latter suggests only that the student is not preoccupied with thoughts about reading proficiency or success. We administered read graders and completed at each the questionnaire the questionnaire measurement occasion. In individually. second Fifth all grade, items were read out loud to and judged individually by the students. As can be seen in Table 3, reliability was high for the negative subscale, but it was somewhat lower for the positive subscale. To investigate the validity of the both questionnaire, TABLE scales were correlated a Coefficients 3. Cronbachs Preoccupation With Attributions with for the scholastic the Questionnaire Measurement 2nd grade Success Concerning occasion attributions negative 2nd grade 5th grade and self-efficacy perceptions Failure Posttest 5th grade anananan scale attributions positive sub and Self-Efficacy Perceptions Pretest Questionnaire competence .63 419 .69 441 .75 402 .71 426 367 .83 408 .84 368 .81 393 and self-efficacy perceptions .77 This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 301 Van Keer Verhaeghe scale of a Dutch Profile for Children (Harter, version of the Self-Perception 1985). These analyses revealed that both positive and negative self-efficacy per ceptions were significantly (p 0. 01) correlated with the scholastic self-concept subscale with r = -. 40 (pretest) and r = -. 37 (posttest) for the negative self-effi = . 22 = . 19 cacy subscale and r (posttest) for the positive self-ef  (pretest) and r subscale. ficacy scale. Although we mainly focused on students self-effi cacy perceptions directly related to reading activities, we administered an exist (Veerman, Straathof, Treffers, Van den Bergh, ing self-concept questionnaire ten Brink, 1997), which is a Dutch version of the Self-Perception Profile for Children (Harter, 1985). Because the questionnaire was not appropriate for sec Perceived competence ond graders, we used the instrument with the fifth-grade group only. To verify the reliability of the different scales, we computed Cronbachs a coefficients. As can be seen in Table 4, the reliability of the measures was acceptable. As to the ques tionnaires validity, Veerman and colleagues investigations into the validity of self-report reported that, compared with other scales, the validity can be judged as moderate. Reading attitude scale. Both second and fifth graders completed a Dutch Read ing Attitude Scale (Aarnoutse, 1996) at the pre- and posttest. Fifth graders read and completed the questionnaire individually.

Ethics Of Pre Implantation Genetic Testing Philosophy Essay

Ethics Of Pre Implantation Genetic Testing Philosophy Essay Humanity revolves around procreation. We need to reproduce in order to produce future generations. In the past few years, science and medicine has gained an immense amount of knowledge about pregnancy and the underlying developmental stages of how it works. Furthermore, science is progressively improving, resulting in our ability to diagnose, manipulate and sometimes treat genetic abnormalities. Procedures such as the pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) were developed as a means to avoid selective abortions by detecting that the embryo is free of terrible lethal genetic diseases such as Huntingtons disease. However, recently PGD has been raising some ethical questions as people began using this technology for medically unrelated and unjustified reasons. Vanity and secondary motives of patients who use PGD for the creation of designer babies and savior siblings violates the fundamental principle of morality. Using PGD for reasons other than justified genetic testing is impermissi ble because it treats the potential baby as a means not as ends in itself; therefore, it violates Kants second categorical imperative. Scientific Background PGD works through a process of In Vitro Fertilization (IVF). In this procedure, multiple eggs are produced, retrieved from the ovaries and [manually] fertilized with the husbands sperm in a laboratory, outside of the female body3. As the embryos develop in vitro, embryo biopsy is performed by removing a single cell from each three day old embryo4. These cells are analyzed-by a variety of methods-for particular chromosomal or genetic abnormalities in order to distinguish which embryos are free of genetic disease. Normal, healthy embryos are then transferred into the uterus where they can grow and develop into a healthy child. Arguments Kant Immanuel Kant came up with a moral philosophy that was based on a theory of the Categorical Imperative. These are valid principles based off of the concept of duty that must be obeyed by all and are good in and of themselves. The second categorical imperative states that one should Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end and never merely as a means to an end2. In other words, one has perfect duty to not use someone as a means to achieve a personal goal. This principle of rationality formulates the core of moral law and requirements that rational agents must follow. Furthermore, each rational being has autonomy, or a free will to define their own law. However, possession of autonomy by each being implies that all persons should be treated equally, with the same amount of respect and one cannot infringe on the others rational will. The intuitive essence of humanity, therefore, objects to usin g others as a mere tool because it overlooks ones integrity and humanness. So, one cannot assert a moral right to own a person-like a piece of property-because proprietary right over a person denies any existence of a free rational action; furthermore, it denies the person a right to be an end in themselves. But, humans have value and worth; hence, they require to be respected. Each person deserves to be respected for his/her integral being (of who they are). While PGD is performed on fetuses, its use is still unjustified because fetuses are potential persons and therefore, require the same amount of respect as any other person. Furthermore, the use of PGD in creating designer babies and savior siblings violates Kants second categorical imperative. Designer Babies A very compelling argument against PGD arises out of its questionable potential use in creating perfect designer babies. The technology behind PGD would allow parents to select specific and nonessential traits (such as eye color, height, athletic ability, even intelligence) that they want their child to express. Such technology is reminiscent of the Build-a-Bear Workshop but for grown-ups. Using PGD as a means for eugenics is fallacious and unjustified in many ways, such as its violation of the second categorical imperative. Parents have abused PGD use in order to have it cater to their individual conceited expectations of creating a perfect child. They vainly pick and chose the traits they find beneficial and get rid of ones they find unhealthy or unperfect so they could satisfy their goal of not having a financially and socially burdensome child. Not only is this wrong because it discriminates against the disabled but also because it violates the core value of humanity by infringing upon the childs autonomous will by treating him/her as a means to an inappropriate end. The parents social and economic ends are being pursued while the childs ends are being neglected. In designing a child, parents destruct the childs will (in a few different ways) therefore, they fail to treat them as an end in themselves. Physically, parents annihilate certain features their child would naturally possess (not to mention the obliteration of unwanted fetuses). By doing so, parents fail to treat the child humanely. Also, al tering mental abilities of a child is deceptive and confuses their will. Hence, it overlooks the rational ability of a-potential-rational agent and his/her end in himself/herself. Finally, parents restrict their childs will by altering their whole mental and physical being and not allowing them to pursue their individual goals as they see fit4. In order for the mental and physical humanity to be treated as an end, ones will must exist. However, when parents select traits for their child, they overlook their childs dignified and humane right to be how they were naturally meant to be. They use their child as a means to reach some vain, social or economical end, therefore, violating Kants second categorical imperative. Every human being is a rational agent (even the fetus which is a potential person) and has autonomy; therefore, one should not be treated as a means to an end. Because the use of PGD allows parents to use their children as a means to an unjustified end, its use is imperm issible. Savior Siblings Another issue with using PGD rises out of its unjustified creation of savior siblings. A savior sibling is a child created by tissue typing and help of PGD in hope of providing a perfect HLA-match for the seriously sick sibling in order to save his/her life. While the engineered child does not benefit or is harmed, the implications of such procedure are morally unethical. It objectifies the child, viewing him/her as a mere commodity, disregarding the childs humane right to equality. Treating such child as a tool to cure another violates an ethical principle of treating a person as an end in himself/herself (violates the second CI) because it uses the child as a means for which to treat the unhealthy older sibling. Such applications of PGD resemble slavery, where the savior child is a slave and the parent is a slave-owner. The parent would possess a right to own the slave child affirming the child as a commodity. But a child is not an object to have possession over; the child is a per son who requires respect and possesses an autonomous will to be an end in himself/herself. Therefore, creating a slave or savior sibling would violate the categorical imperative due to the demolishment of the childs free rational action. Thus, use of PGD for the creation of savior (slave) siblings is unjustified because it strongly violates Kants second categorical imperative. Furthermore, creation of savior siblings leads to other problems. In addition to being unethical, there is a strong belief that a childs profound identity would be impaired. They would be viewed as a secondary gain, a tool solely designed for the purpose of saving another life. This impaired will of the child would lead to countless psychological problems. The mental aspect of the childs humane nature would be compromised-the child would lack self-esteem and self-rescpect-as he/she would not be praised for his/her individual value but rather as a means to a particular end. Parents, by using PGD for instrumentalization of their children, would violate the childs autonomous will and individual personal value by using them as mere means to parental ends and limit[ing] a childs right to an open future4. In sum, PGD promotes unjustified creation of designer babies and savior siblings. The use of this technology allows parents to use their children (or potential children) as a means to satisfy their parental end; therefore, neglecting the childs autonomous will to be an end in himself/herself. Thus using PGD to create designer babies and savior siblings is impermissible because it violates Kants second categorical imperative. Opposition PGD is argued to be unethical in this paper; however, others view its use acceptable and nothing more than a legitimate autonomous right of parents to produce healthy children. They believe that because parents are the most socially and economically affected by the birth of a child, then they should have the right and freedom to choose the identity of their offspring. Having a healthy child is in the parents interest because it is less socially and financially constraining and burdensome. Besides, being healthy is in the best interest of the child as well. The child would want to live a happy and healthy life, free of disease. If PGD can provide a tool for removing such lethal and stigmatizing disease form society, then it should be perfectly plausible to be able to use it. Parents have a right to choose what it best for their children and family; therefore, using PGD as a means that will allow them to select for traits they see best fit for their child would be perfectly justified. Rebuttal However, while these are plausible reasons for the use of PGD, they are not strong enough to justify its immoral applications. Every single individual-even the potential person and the disabled-has a right to autonomy. No one can or should be able to define what life is worth living; furthermore, no one can impose the quality of life of principle on another. As previously stated, we can not say that the disabled lead a good or a bad life; it is simply not for us to decide. In fact, values of good and bad are of human conception and will vary from person to person. Parents need to take responsibility, financially and mentally for their child regardless of its physical well-being. Good parent do not choose; furthermore, they do not use their child as a means to appease their interest of having a less socially and financially constraining life. Using PGD for vain reasons is never morally justified. Using PGD for medicinal reasons is appropriate; however, using it for designer babies and savior siblings violates the fundamental principle of ethics (Kants second categorical imperative) and therefore, can never be morally justified. Conclusion In conclusion, PGD has revolutionized reproduction. It has granted access into a remote realm by allowing persons to select favorable genetic characteristics of offspring before implantation. However, while its promising view of the world without suffering and disease sounds appealing, moral justifications of PGD and its policy raise many concerns. More specifically, some of the issues with the use of this technology deal with the unjustified creation of designer babies and savior siblings. These are serious issues, the implications of which can have destructive and irreversible consequences on the present and future generations. While some of the applications of PGD may be accepted; nevertheless, as of now, the risks outweigh the benefits. It is not medicines role to make one more socially accepted or be better-off. Those are not the types of standards for us to decide. Intentional destruction of potential human life is never justified. PGD runs on a dangerously thin line of potenti al medicinal benefit and playing God. It also violates Kants second categorical imperative by treating fetuses as a mere means to an end. Therefore, until clear, strictly medicinal and ethical applications of PGD are established, the use of this technology can not be justified.