Case Study Bob Knowlton free essay sample

Was it effective? Explain. What would you have done with Fester if you were Knowlton? What would you have done to influence Dr. Jerrold if you were Knowlton? Conclusion Bob Knowlton Overview The Case (Bob Knowlton) depicts how inappropriate leadership styles can greatly influence employee’s performance and commitment to their organization. It also shows the impact that ineffective leadership can have on communication, teamwork, and the organization as a whole. The main characters are Bob Knowlton, whom was the Laboratory Leader, Dr Jerrold whom as the Director and Fester the new hire. Bob was promoted to be the leader of the Laboratory by Dr. Jerrold, (whom was the head of the lab), as he saw that Bob had the necessary skill set to oversee certain projects. Fester (whom Dr. Jerrold thought very highly of) was hired after, by Dr. Jerrold, without any formal introduction to the group, which in turn offset a series of animosity, and insecurity issues†¦ An organization has th e greatest chance of being successful when all employees, crucify self, focus on the company’s vision, and work towards achieving it. Since leadership involves the exercise of influence by one person over others, the quality of leadership exhibited by supervisors is therefore a critical determinant of organizational success. Leadership Leadership StyleLeadership is a complex process by which a person influences others to accomplish a mission, task, or objective and directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent. A person carries out this process by applying her/his leadership attributes (belief, values, ethics, character, knowledge, and skills). Although the position as a manager, supervisor, lead, etc. gives the authority to accomplish certain tasks and objectives in the organization, this power does not make one a leader it simply makes you the boss. Leadership makes people want to achieve high goals and objectives, while, on the other hand, bosses tell people to accomplish a task or objective. Good leaders are made not born. If one has the desire and willpower, then they can become an effective leader. Good leaders develop through a never-ending process of self-study, education, training, and experience. The Attribution Theory of Leadership The early conceptualization of leadership was that leaders are characterized by certain enduring traits that predispose them to leadership roles. This view was later superseded by theories of leadership style, and then contingency theories, where leader behavior was approached, as an interaction of leader, follower, and environment. Bass (1) Theory of LeadershipBass HYPERLINK http://www. nwlink. com/~donclark/leader/leadcon. html \l one (1) theory of leadership states that there are three basic ways to explain how people become leaders. The first two explain the leadership development for a small number of people, these theories are: Trait Theory. Some personality traits may lead people naturally into leadership roles. Events Theory. A crisis or important event may cause a person to rise to the occasion, which brings out extraordinary leadership qualities in an ordinary person. Transformational Leadership TheoryPeople can choose to become leaders, also people can learn leadership skills, this is the most widely accepted theory today and the premise on which this guide is based. Questions Answers What attributions did Bob Knowlton make? Knowlton implemented the ideal of the Proton Correlator, thus he produced. He was very dedicated; he normally stayed after the others had gone, to review the group work. He was a good team leader, he lead meeting regularly before Fester came on the scene. Because of his attributions he was promoted only after two years with the company. What team norms seemed to be operating in Knowlton’s team? Norms can be defined as rules and patterns of behavior that are accepted and expected by members of team, we can say then that Knowlton had a clear goal – as he made the team produce to his boss level of satisfaction. Therefore to help the team attain that goal, Knowlton had developed team norms that are consistent with neutral respect to, or conflict with that goal. For example Knowlton held regular meeting with team members to discuss method of analysis of patterns, and other problems. He set norms on how to handle team meeting, and who can participate in these meetings, all these norms set in a way to improve their productivity. The team members were aware of these norms, and they understood how necessary the norms were in order to achieve their goal. What is also important to remember, is that these norms were well enforced with no problem at all, and members of the team felt comfortable with the norms, until Fester arrived. They generally form and enforce norms with respect to behaviors that they believe to be particularly important. The norms Knowlton set for the team aid in team survival and provide benefit, that is why once the norms were no longer enforced, the team collapsed. 3. What leadership style did Knowlton needed from Jerrold after Fester arrived? The Leadership style that Knowlton needed from Jerrold after Fester arrived was the Consult Team Style, the Supporting Style. Consult Team Style: The issue or the plan needed to be presented to the team in meetings or on a one to one basis to avoid misinterpretation of the primary goal. In the beginning of the passage, Jerrold had a one on one conversation with Knowlton which talked about his intentions of bringing Fester to the lab but he failed in communicating to the team what his real intentions were. He never focused on making others aware about the future of the lab, and that created friction among the members especially between Fester (the new comer) and Knowlton. We believe that Jerrold’s future intentions for the lab were good, however, his lack of team communication really affected the team performance as well as its productivity; consulting his team first was very vital in this scenario. Supporting Style is for people who have competence, but lack confidence or motivation. They do not need much direction because of their skills, but support is necessary to bolster their confidence and motivation. When Fester came on the scene Knowlton started to feel very insecure because of Fester’s brilliance competence, more over he felt that his job was being threatened, by him. He would have done well with some assurance from Dr. Jerrold. 4. What leadership style did Knowlton seem to get from Dr. Jerrold before and after Fester arrived? Before the arrival of Fester, Jerrold used the Delegate Style, he allowed Knowlton to brainstorm with the team for solutions to their problems. The Delegate style is when the leader allows the employees to make the decision. However, the leader is still responsible for the decisions that are made. This is used when employees are able to analyze the situation and determine what needs to be done and how to do it. Jerrold saw that Knowlton was capable to handle the projects so he used the delegate style with him. After Fester arrived Dr. Jerrold used the Decide leadership style. Dr. Jerrold hired Fester without the knowledge of the team, and Fester also started working without being introduced to the group by Dr. Jerrold. He then used Fester’s expertise to collect information to assist him in solving the issues of the lab. His decision about the team’s future was primarily influenced by Fester’s knowledge and contribution. Even before Fester started with the team Dr. Jerrold saw the need of adding a stronger source to the team. 5. What leadership style did Knowlton use with his subordinates? Knowlton used two leadership styles with his subordinates, the Consult Team Style, and the Participating Style – The Participating style because he was fully involved, he was able to perform, however he was not fully confident of his ability. Knowlton also admitted that he would have felt less secure if he had to direct the work on his own. The Consult Team Style because he constantly held meetings and allow the other members to share in decisions about how best to complete a high-quality job/their project. 6. What leadership style did Knowlton use with Fester? Was it effective? Explain. The leadership style that Knowlton used with Fester was the Avoidance Style and Democratic Style. First he tried to stay away from conflict with Fester, ignoring disagreement and remaining neutral. This style refers to unassertive and uncooperative behaviors like Fester. When unresolved conflict gets in the way of accomplishing goals, the avoid style led to negative results for the organization. It also seems that he used the Democratic Leadership Style which is more flexible. However, it is also less efficient and provides less emotional security. This style was not effective with Fester’s character, as Fester was very direct and aggressive, which led him to take advantage of the situation. Knowlton did not try to influence Fester to adopt any solution and was willing to accept and implement any solution that Fester proposed. . What would you have done with Fester if you were Knowlton? We believe that the key here is the lack of communication between the head of the lab and the rest of the employees. The future structure of the lab was not well defined by Dr. Jerrold. He had other plans in mind that were not communicated clearly, and as a result caused a lot of confusion and friction amongst the members, that led to the dismantlement of the t eam. We felt that Knowlton should have expressed to Jerrold how he felt about the whole situation. He obviously felt intimidated by Fester’s knowledge in the field and he assumed that his job was being threatened. A professional conversation with Fester could have altered and improved the situation. Knowlton was very intimidated and threatened by Fester’s brilliance and outspokenness, however if we were Knowlton we would have used Fester’s brilliance to the advantage of the team, and the company as a whole. Fester instead allowed self to rule his judgment and believe. 8. What would you have done to influence Dr. Jerrold if you were Knowlton? Knowlton needed to demonstrate to Dr Jerrold that he was capable of leading the team without having to worry about someone taking his place. His insecurity intimidated him into leaving the company. He could not handle the pressure of having to work with someone more qualified than him. He was a leader until Fester got there, Knowlton should have taken advantage of his experience to show more leadership skills to Dr. Jerold not just walking away and hurting the team. Conclusion According to the Bass (1) theory Knowlton would fall under the Events Theory, as he did not choose to become a leader. Also he did not have the personality trait that steered people into leadership, (he was more a manager); the event of implementing the idea of the Photon Correlator, placed him in that position. He performed his duty very well; however he admitted that he would feel far less secure if he had to direct the work completely on his own, without the support of his team. According to the Situational Leadership, good leaders are able to adopt differing leadership styles with different people, and also with the same people, but at different times; Knowlton should have altered his leadership style with Fester. Although there is much more to successful leadership than selecting the right style, the situational component of leadership is crucial to an organization’s success. The better a leader can gauge the impact of decisions on team members and how technically self-sufficient they are, the better he/she can lead. Leadership success certainly cannot be guaranteed, but knowing when and when not to use a particular style will greatly enhance one’s capacity to succeed. Knowing what to do and when to do it is half the battle in successful leadership/ management. References: Organizational Behavior, 10th edition, Hellriegel Slocum HYPERLINK http://www. nwlink. com/~donclark/leader/leadstl. html http://www. nwlink. com/~donclark/leader/leadstl. html Big Dogs Leadership Page Leadership Styles Blake, Robert R. and Jane S. Mouton (1985). The Managerial Grid III: The Key to Leadership Excellence. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co. Bass, Bernard, Stogdills Handbook of Leadership: A Survey of Theory and Research, New York: Free Press, 1989. Bass, Bernard, From Transactional to Transformational Leadership: Learning to Share the Vision, Organizational Dynamics, Winter 1990. Leadership is indeed a complex process, but two key factors are especially important in determining which style will work best in a given situation: (1) the impact the decision or leadership action likely will have on the team, and (2) the extent to which team members are competent to make the decision or take action on their own. Leadership Styles Your leadership style is how you behave when you are trying to influence the performance of others. It is the way you supervise or work with someone. The are four leadership styles (but there is no one best leadership style): Directing HYPERLINK http://www. 1000ventures. com/business_guide/crosscuttings/coaching_main. html Coaching Supporting HYPERLINK http://www. 1000ventures. com/business_guide/mgmt_decentralzation_delegation. html Delegating. Depending on your employees competences in their task areas and commitment to them, your leadership style may vary from one person to another. You may also lead the same person one way sometimes and another way at other times. Use a variety of leadership styles in directing and supporting the work of others and make them a second nature to you in your roles as a manager and as a parent. Leadership Styles1 | |Directing Style is for people who lack competence but are enthusiastic and committed. They need direction and supervision to get| |them started. | |Coaching Style is for people who have some competence but lack commitment. They need direction and supervision because they are | |still relatively inexperienced. They also need support and praise to build their self-esteem, and involvement in decision-making| |to restore their commitment. |Supporting Style is for people who have competence, but lack confidence of motivation. They do not need much direction because | |of their skills, but support is necessary to bolster their confidence and motivation. | |Delegating Style is for people who have both competence and commitment. They are able and willing to work on a project by | |themselves with little supervision or support | | INCLUDEPICTURE http://www. 1000ventures. com/design_elements/selfmade/leadership_situational_styles. if \* MERGEFORMATINET | a situational leader is one who can adopt different leadership styles depending on the situation. By adopting the right style to suit the followers development level, work gets done, relationships are built up, and most importantly, the followers development level will rise A locus of control orientation is a belief about whether the outcomes of our actions are contingent on what we do (internal control ori entation) or on events outside our personal control (external control orientation). (Zimbardo, 1985, p. 75) Our attribution style determines which forces we hold responsible for our successes and failures. Both locus of control and attribution styles have great influence on our motivation, expectations, self-esteem, risk-taking behavior, and even on the actual outcome of our actions. What is your locus of control? And what forces are responsible for your successes and failures? Important Keys of Leadership Helping employees understand the companys overall business strategy. Helping employees understand how they contribute to achieving key business objectives. Sharing information with employees on how the company is doing and also how an employees own division is doing –in relation to strategic business objectives. Ask question when you don’t understand Make sure everyone has a chance to participate Respect others’ opinions. Presume positive intentions. Be open to new ideas. In concluding Fester was more a manager than a leader Know your mission. If you are assigned to a position of leadership, you are expected to accomplish something, so find out what it is. If you find yourself in a leadership role and that happens any time someone elects to follow you take a good look at where you are going. You are likely to be displeased with yourself if you lead them over a cliff, and it is difficult to answer someone who says, I followed you because I thought you were going somewhere. So leadership is a responsibility that requires a workable sense of direction. Overview The value of an innovation project is largely determined by the quality of the team that conducts it. Essential teamwork capabilities include choosing team members and partners, mobilizing resources, developing a group culture specific to the project and establishing a framework of norms and values that directly influence the project’s dynamics. Goal The goal of this module is †¢ to explore the nature of teams and discuss the basics of effective teamwork, †¢ to analyze effective and less effective ways of communicating, making decisions and resolving conflict in a team environment and †¢ to identify barriers to creativity and innovation in teams and discuss ways of overcoming those barriers. Evaluation Written test at the end of the module (Saturday A participating or democratic leadership style is more flexible, and better able to use the minds of the followers, and thus less likely to charge off into a blind alley, than an autocratic leadership style. However, it is also less efficient and provides less emotional security. An autocratic leadership style focuses authority and responsibility on the leader. It gets things done, and it is essential in time of emergency. There is a valuable kind of comfort in knowing that someone is in charge provided that he or she is not leading the whole crew over a cliff. There is a place for both democratic and autocratic leadership: democratic when the leader needs inputs; autocratic when a decision must be made: Okay, I heard you. Now this is what we will do. A purely democratic organization has no leader the majority rules. A purely autocratic organization has no feedback the leader rules. The most successful organizations seem to have some of both. This type of balance is an art, and not yet a science. However, some leaders are pretty good at it. I worked for a squadron commander who held a staff meeting every morning. As a newly assigned

Teenage Pregnancy Essays - Midwifery, Teenage Pregnancy,

Teenage Pregnancy Recent statistics have shown a continuing increase in teen pregnancy in the United States. This increase is of particular concern because teen mothers and their babies face increased risks to their health. The birth rate for young teens (age 15 to 17) is steadily rising. Between 1986 and 1991, the rate increased by 27 percent (from a rate of 30.5 to a rate of 38.7 per 1,000 women). In 1991 (the most recent year for which data are available), nearly 4 in 100 girls ages 15 to 17 had a baby.(1) About 1 million teenagers become pregnant each year, and more than 530,000 give birth.(1) Nearly 13% of all U.S. births in 1991 were to teens.(1) Teenage pregnancy and birth rates in the U.S. exceed those in most developed countries.(2) Teens too often have poor eating habits, and may smoke, drink alcohol and take drugs, increasing the risk that their babies will be born with health problems. Pregnant teens are least likely of all maternal age groups to get early and regular prenatal care. In 1991,11 percent of teen mothers received late or no prenatal care.(1) (The overall average is 6 percent.) A teenage mother is more at risk of pregnancy complications such as premature or prolonged labor, anemia and high blood pressure. These risks are even greater for teens who are less than 15 years old.(3) Three million teens are affected by sexually transmitted diseases annually, out of the 12 million cases reported.(4) These include chlamydia (which can cause sterility), syphilis (which can cause blindess, death, and death to the infant) and AIDS, which is fatal to the mother and can infect the infant. A baby born to a teenage mother is more at risk than a baby born to an older mother. Nine percent of teenage girls have low-birthweight babies (under 5.5 lbs.), compared to 7 percent of all mothers nationally.(1) Low-birthweight babies may have organs that are not fully developed. This can lead to lung problems such as respiratory distress syndrome, or bleeding in the brain. Low-birthweight babies are 40 times more likely to die in their first month of life than normal-weight babies. Life is often difficult for a teenage mother and her child. One in three teen mothers drops out of high school. With her education cut short, a teenage mother may lack job skills, making it hard for her to find and keep a job. A teenage mother may become financially dependent on her family or on welfare. Teens may not have developed good parenting skills, or have social-support systems to help them deal with the stress of raising an infant. The March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation The mission of the March of Dimes is to improve the health of babies by preventing birth defects and infant mortality. Through its Campaign for Healthier Babies, the March of Dimes funds programs of research, community services, education and advocacy. Because of the risks involved in teen pregnancy to both mother and child, the March of Dimes strongly urges teenage girls to delay childbearing. Teens who are already pregnant can improve their chances of having a healthy baby by: ~Getting early and regular prenatal care from a doctor or clinic. ~Eating a nutritious and balanced diet. ~Consuming 0.4 milligrams of folic acid (the amount found in most multivitamin supplements) daily to reduce the risk of serious birth defects of the brain and spine. ~Avoiding smoking (and secondhand smoke when possible) and alcoholic beverages. ~Avoiding all drugs, unless recommended by a doctor or health care provider who is aware of the pregnancy. Programs and educational materials relating to teen pregnancy are available from the March of Dimes, including the brochures, "Teens Talk Sex," "Teens Talk Drugs" and "AIDS...What We Need to Know" and the "Clear Vision" and "Rockabye" audiovisuals, which are aimed at the junior high and high school audience. Contact your local March of Dimes chapter for ordering information.

Dubonnet essays

Dubonnet essays I have recently been looking at one of Cassandres poster designs called Dubonnet (below) that was designed in 1934 advertising wine. I think this poster is unusual because the poster has three parts to it but all represents the same theme. At the first stage of the design there is a man sitting at a table staring at the glass he is holding what appears to be filled with wine, as the man holds up the glass part of his arm and face becomes highlighted in a dark shade. Also, in the same stage the word DUBO stands out which is read like Du Beau, that means something beautiful. In the second stage the lettering gradually changes to DUBON (something good), and at the same time the man now tastes the wine, again the mans body is shaded more this time moving down towards his stomach. Eventually in the last stage of the design the full brand name of the wine, DUBONNET, is revealed and the man has finished his glass of wine and helps himself to a second serving with a fully highlighted body. To me, this design is very clever because of the way Cassandre has divided the poster into three stages to make it like a cartoon strip. I think the message that its trying to get across is that the more you drink, the more energy you fill up with. Another thing I noticed about this poster is that in each stage of the design he signs parts of his name just like the word DUBONNET and in the last stage he signs his name fully as A.M Cassandre, and also the background of the poster changes shades of yellow and the mans body fills in. I imagine that Cassandre had thought about this design really hard to produce such an unusual advertisement for wine. ...

Working without Trade Unions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Working without Trade Unions - Essay Example Trade unionism has been in existence in the UK for more than 200 years, as illegal associations at first but gained legal recognition later (Trade Unions 1980). In 1978, statistics revealed that membership with numerous trade unions total to around 13 million workers (Trade Unions 1980). Unions existing at present serve the interests of particular type of workers or industry (Theses on the Trade n.d.). Through the unions, the workers can bargain with the employers to grant them increases in wages or salaries, specific working hours, benefits, or day-off from work. Negative Impact of Trade Union Unionism was primarily established to protect the interests of the workers. However, it has also been used by workers to blackmail employers. Running a company would entail a lot of factors to consider and has to maintain a certain margin of profit in order to survive the competition. Workers and employees though would want to get more from their employers by using various legal modes to get m ore benefits. Thus, at a slight movement in the economy or inflation, they would lay down their demands to the companies. There is a collective bargaining agreement or CBA that governs the relationship of employers and workers. The CBA is a contract of labour between the company and the workers. It exists at a certain period of time after which, it has to be renegotiated by both parties. At such renegotiation, the workers present their new demands which the employer may or may not concede. At the renewal of the CBA contract, the workers would push hard so that their demands will be granted by the employer. Companies that operate well and earn more profits may grant the economic demands of the workers. However, with the erratic economic conditions resulting from the recent global slump that affected banking and financial institutions, as well as several industries, CBA renegotiation or too much demand from the workers can tilt the operations of companies. Radical or extreme unionism that tends to disrupt company operations is bad for the economy and the company. It also fosters unhealthy employee-employer relationship that breeds distrust on the part of both parties. According to Naylor and Santoni (2003, cited in Radulescu & Robson 2006), there would be lesser foreign investments in a country where the bargaining power of trade unions on the aspect of wage is strong. There are studies though that do not support this position. Cooke (1997, cited in Radulescu & Robson 2006) and Cooke and Noble (1998, cited in Radulescu & Robson 2006) said that multinational firms in the US tend to invest in countries with decentralised wage bargaining process, and veer away from strong trade unionism. The Workplace Employee Relations Survey revealed that from 1990 to 1998, companies with unions undergo more closures than plants without unions (Millward, Forth & Bryson, 2001). Generally, companies without unions boomed at an average of 1.4 percent per year within the same period (Millward, Forth & Bryson, 2001). In contrast, firms with unions had been shrinking at an average of 1.8 percent yearly (Millward, Forth & Bryson, 2001). Addison and Belfield (2002) said that the prevailing trend seen in unionised companies is its slowed effect upon employment growth. UKs 1998 Workplace Employee Relations Panel Survey (WER-PS), lasting for eight years, that contained around 50 percent of the 1990 Workplace Industrial Relations Survey (original companies surveyed totals 2,016) revealed that firms that have labour unions existing for a very long time have weak labour productivity (Addison & Belfield 2002). On the

Leadership and management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Leadership and management - Essay Example According to Waite, leadership â€Å"covers a complex set of circumstances that include the psyche of the period, the economic situation, and the structure of a culture. In other words, leadership transcends all boundaries† (1). However, not all individuals have the attributes of becoming capable leaders. Influence is the primary concept involved in leadership. It is a human invention process that is compared with successful business control, with powerful, influential and charismatic leaders, and Chief Executive Officers. Daft defines leadership as a relationship between followers and leaders that is based on influence in order to achieve actual changes and results based on their common objectives (4). Daft defines management as â€Å"the attainment of organizational goals in an effective and efficient manner through planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling organizational resources† (14). The efforts in management involve members of an organization focused on a particular goal. Management is therefore a group of people responsible for directing the workforce and ensuring that the organization meets its goals and objectives. Management is the act of getting work done through people. Management has various functions which include, planning, organizing, staffing, motivating, and controlling. Planning involves setting organizational objectives and outlining plans to achieve the objectives, organizing involves classifying and allocating tasks, and supplying necessary power to perform tasks. Staffing includes recruiting relevant and qualified individuals for various positions, motivating involves inspiring people to make great efforts in attaining organizational goals, while controlling involves seeing to it that organizational goals are achieved. Although leaders are sometimes managers and managers have to be leaders, leadership and management are different in a number of ways. While management concentrates on achievement of results through effective acquisition, arrangement, implementation, and regulation of all resources such as money, facilities and people, leadership â€Å"focuses on the most important resource, people. It is the process of developing and communicating a vision for the future, motivating people and gaining their commitment and engagement† (Armstrong and Stephens 5). Management is focused on managing complex issues pertaining planning and budgeting with an aim of producing results, while leadership focuses on producing change by developing a vision that will last for the future, along with strategies that bring about the changes needed. Management involves itself with the development of the capacity to achieve pl ans by creating an organizational structure and developing human system, while leadership organizes people by communicating the new created direction, and the creation of collaboration that understands the vision and is committed to achievement. Management ensures that plans are undertaken through controlling and problem solving, while leadership uses motivation to energize people, leadership tries to satisfy basic human needs through achievement (Armstrong and Stephens 6). Management is the most important human activity; because it’s the basic task of managers at all levels in all business and institutions. A leader has the ability to influence people, while a manager may not. Leaders have three major roles; defining a task, where they ensure to make it clear what they expect a group to do, achieving a task, where they ensure that the group`s purpose and goals are achieved, and maintaining effective relationships. They ensure that a good relationship is built between themsel ves and group members, and among the group

Ontological or Epistemological Organisational Structure

Ontological or Epistemological Organisational Structure Organizations Structure: Modern / Symbolic and Post- Modern perspectives There are many different ways at looking at organizations, with each way producing a different insight, knowledge, and perspective. Depending on the ontological as well epistemological assumptions, different theories and perspectives may seem to apply better. The essay will focus on the similarities and differences between the theories through the models of social structure in an organization. From the philosophical ontological point of view, the modernist sees the material and social world as consisting of structures that exist, regardless of individual awareness. For example, the hierarchy of an organization is regarded as a social fact even if people are not aware of it. â€Å"Organizations †¦ should work like machines, using people, resources, as their parts. With the key design of building â€Å"the best† machines to keep organizations productive.† (Han van Diest. 2008) As such, the modernist approach to an organization can be considered as a well designed, structured entity. Operating organizational success is considered to be the result of well-organized systems that keep people / machines busy and costs under control. (Han van Diest. 2008) On the other end of the spectrum, the postmodernist would argue that the social world external to individual support is made up of nothing more than mere names, concepts and labels which are then used to form a structured reality. (Burrell and Morgan 1979) Supporters of the postmodernist argue that organizations are ‘imagined entities. â€Å"A core idea in postmodernism is that we are always making sense of our omniscient reality through a pair of imaginative glasses glasses based on such factors as our present desire in a given situation, our past experiences, our values and culture, our understanding of what is real, and so forth. It is never possible to take the glasses off altogether and view the world impartially.† (Inkeles A. 1983.) Taking a more balanced stand in the spectrum, a symbolic interpretive perception would be that social reality is created through communicative interaction between groups of people. Social reality is not a reality or set of facts existing prior to human activity. We create our social world through our language, symbols and behavioral actions. (Steven R Corman, Marshall Scott Poole 2000) As expressive forms representative of human consciousness, organizations are understood and analyzed not mainly in economic or material terms but in terms of their expressive ideas and symbolism. (Smircich 1983: 347-8). (Hatch, Mary J. and Cunliffe, Ann L., 2006) Structure of an Organization: While defining an organization from nuts and bolts point of view such as objects, buildings and elements, one of the key aims of a modernist perspective is to measure the organizational social structure to find out how to improve and contrive the ideal organization. (Hatch, Mary J. and Cunliffe, Ann L., 2006) Through research and past studies of various organizations, it was found that there is a strong relationship between the internal/external environment and the social structure of an organization in both a cross-tabulated or correlated way. Influences may include the size or bureaucratic structure of the organization. (Lex Donaldson 2001). The organizational environment has a direct effect on organizational structure, such that unstable environment produce an organic structure system that can react and adapt more quickly, while in the opposite scenario, produces a mechanistic system. The better the match, the higher the effectiveness of the organization. (e.g., Burns Stalker, 1961; Pennings,1975). (Shmuel Ellis, Tamar Almor, Oded Shenkar 2002) The modernist also views the organization through its social structuration. As routines, habits and rules are developed through the mutual interaction and influences between the workers and organization, a structural system is created, re-created and mediated within the organizationa. Realizing that the agency and its structures are both conditions and outcomes of the actions of human action, social relations and practices within the organization (Cohen, 1989, Giddens, 1984), social structure is therefore viewed not a â€Å"dead† entity, but a social construction created and maintained by social practices. (Jennifer Wheeler-Brooks 2009) Again, although the organization structure provides the setting, in which workers fulfill and complete their daily task, the relationship between them, is not cast in stone, as employees remain as knowledgeable, responsive workers who have the ability to choose their own behaviors and thus either continuing or modifying the organization through their actions and behavior. It is also important to note that the modernists view on social structure comprises three mutually supportive dualities of structures and agency (workers), namely signification, domination, and legitimation. Although these three are inseparable in practice (Giddens, 1979, 1984), (Giddens, 1979, 1984), they may be analyzed separately. Structures of signification are institutionalized interpretive schemes that allocate meaning to peoples actions, such as beliefs, and language. Structures of legitimation are organization norms, constituted in the tacitly understood moral and social obligations (Clegg, 1989). Structures of domination are the institutionalized acquisition of power (Giddens, 1984). This can be in the form of, resources domination involving the structured distribution of material resources, such as products, services including right of access and deployment of such resources, as well as institutionalized authority relationships. (Giddens, 1984; Whittington, 1992) By concentrating on the discontinuities and changing patterns of behavior and relationships of an organization, one cannot help but question and probe deeper on the relationship between agency and structure. (Giddens 1979; Reed 1997). (Paula Jarzabkowski 2008) It can therefore also be said that formal structures have symbolic as well as action producing attributes. Structures can become injected with socially shared meanings, and thus, apart to their functional roles, can serve to share and bring information about the organization both internally and externally. A symbolic interpretation can therefore help provide a new and different perspective into the causes and consequences of structure within an organization. (Tolbert and Zucker, 1996, p. 177). (Van de Ven, Andrew H.; Dooley, Kevin; Holmes, Michael E. 2004) The symbolic interpretive perceives that the emergence of the organization social structure needs to include social interaction and human consciousness through social practices, routines and community interaction. Through the build up of ideas, knowledge and actions of people, a routine is birth and rebirth in response to new experiences observed. (Levitt and March, 1988) Routines may include organizational rules, roles, conventions, strategies, structures, cultural practices and capabilities. (Martin Schulz 2002) It is therefore incorrect to think of organizations as only departments or system units. Interpersonal correspondence is the crux of any organization as it creates structures and foundations which can then affect what needs to be done, who to do it and what to do after that. (Robert Lawrence Heath, Jennings Bryant 2000) Organizations are adaptable to their environments in ways such as creating jobs for specific occasions, purposes or people and evaluating and deciding to continue or discontinue the job, based on the new requirement and knowledge acquired. (Miner (1987, 1991). (Martin Schulz 2002) The Symbolic interpretive views the social structure of an organization through the process of knowledge transference within the organization. (Davenport and Prusak, 1996; Choo, 1998) Knowledge, symbolism and best-practice transfers within and between organizations is not a one-sided activity, but an ongoing process of sharing, involving trial and error, feedback, and the mutual adjustment of both the sender and receiver of knowledge. (Szulanski, 1996; Powell, 1998; Kaeser, 2001). (Georg von Krogh 2003) It is also viewed that the chief feature of human organization is the use of language and symbolism (including the attribution of meaning to things and making sense of the world). (Robert Cooper 1989) From the Symbolic interpretive perspective, language such as the use of words, shared vocabulary, the way workers speak about their organization, use of â€Å"slangs† and jargons can also be used to define the social structure within the organization. Such groups of people, â€Å"Communities of practice†, bond together due to similar passion for their skills and knowledge, and through regular interaction in order, develop a tacit understanding and meaning with one another, thus enhancing the social structure within an organization. (Etienne Wenger, Richard Arnold Mcdermott, William Snyder, 2002) The foundational perspectives of postmodernism are that the individuals in the organization do not have an independent consciousness but needs inter-communication with others to develop an identity. Meanings are not given prior to communication but arise from it and are context-dependent; meanings, structure and language are considered temporary due to the ever-changing environment and developments. (Bart Nooteboom, 1992) Where modern organizations favour bureaucratic structures that emphasis on roles, rules and procedures, postmodern organizations prefers a more democratic approach and views that are informal and based on mutual agreement. Comparing to modern organizations that favour separation of functions and departments, postmodern organizations favour de-differentiation of those elements. This allows the creation of multi-skilled worker that can break traditional structural boundaries and inflexible work processes. (Steve May, Dennis K. Mumby 2004) The social structure of an organization is viewed simply as a reflection of the built commitment of individuals to help develop a set of â€Å"rules† for the organization in order to survive in the ever changing postmodern era. (Jim Barry, 2000) Drawing much from the philosophies of language of (the later) Wittgenstein (1976) and de Saussure (1979), in Postmodernism, communication rather than consciousness is viewed as the backbone of knowledge, and hence the philosophy of language occupies a central position. Words are not longer interpreted as names of objects or properties (meanings, concepts) that are given prior to language unlike in the Symbolic interpretive perspective. (Bart Nooteboom, 1992) Language reveals the organizational reality by showing that it is a process that involuntarily includes its internal differences and conflicts. The social structure of the organization is always in disarray caused by threats and internal fighting. Organizations should therefore be viewed appropriately based on sense, intellect and logical context. This is very much unlike the modern thinking of the notion of an organization stability. (Robert Cooper 1989) However, despite the difference of â€Å"language† opinions, postmodernists still follow the fundamental social structure similar to that of the symbolic interpretive in that interaction between people does not arise from a fixed structural identity, but is formed through interaction between people. In the words of Lyotard: The self by itself does not amount to much, but it is not isolated. It is taken up in a tissue of relations which is more complex and mobile than ever. It always finds itself in a nexus in communication circuits, however small.(1979, p. 59, authors translation). (Bart Nooteboom, 1992) In conclusion, although the three perspectives differ in their interpretation and views on the dimension of an organizational structure, it can be agreed that all perspectives recognize the importance of the social structure of an organization as the key building block that forms the organization. Blau (1977: 1) â€Å"The study of social structure centres attention on the distribution of people among different positions and their social associations. Through the study of structural effects of the various perspectives, we are able to understand the spirit, character and characteristics of social structure within an organization, as well as the effects and outcomes it carries by looking at factors such as formal organization chart, differentiated positions within the structure, relationships among task-relevant roles, languages games used, differentiation, inter-communication, etc. Thus having a good understanding of the different perspectives and applying a mixture of different â€Å"theories† in the right context and environment will help to strengthen the organization as a whole and provide a better picture of what an organization is and why things are happening the way they are. Reference: Andrew H, Dooley, Holmes, Kevin, Michael E, Van de Ven, ‘Handbook of Organizational Change and Innovation Cary, NC, USA: Oxford University Press, Incorporated, 2004. p 179. Bart Nooteboom, ‘A Postmodern Philosophy of Markets, Int. Studies of Mgt. Org., Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 53-76 M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 1992 Dennis K. Mumby, Steve May, 2004, ‘Engaging Organizational Communication Theory Research. Etienne Wenger, Richard Arnold Mcdermott, William Snyder, 2002, ‘A Guide to management knowledge: Cultivating Communities of Practice Georg von Krogh, 2003, ‘Knowledge Sharing and the Communal Resource Han van Diest, 2008, ‘Possibilities of Democratisation in Organisations. Social Epistemology Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 97-117 Hatch, Mary J. and Cunliffe, Ann L., 2006, ‘Organization Theory, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press: Oxford Inkeles A. ‘Exploring Individual Modernity. New York: Columbia University Press, 1983 Jennifer Wheeler-Brooks ‘Journal of Sociology Social Welfare, March 2009, Volume XXXVI, Number 1 Jennings Bryant, Robert Lawrence Heath, 2000, ‘Human Communication Theory and Research. Jim Barry, 2000, ‘Organizations and Management. Lex Donaldson, 2001, ‘The Contingency Theory of Organizations Martin Schulz, 2002, ‘Organizational Learning Oded Shenkar, Shmuel Ellis, Tamar Almor, 2002, ‘Structural Contingency Revisited: Toward a Dynamic System Model Paula Jarzabkowski, 2008, ‘Shaping strategy as a Structuration Process Robert Cooper, ‘Modernism, Post Modernism and Organizational Analysis 3: The Contribution of Jacques Derrida Steven R Corman, Marshall Scott Poole, 2000, ‘Perspectives on Organization Communication

Knowledge Discovery in Databases: An Overview Essay -- Data Mining

Knowledge Discovery in Databases: An Overview Abstract In the past, the term Data Mining was, and still is, used to designate the activity of pulling useful information from databases. Now, this term is recognized to apply but to one activity in a very large process to extract knowledge from opaque databases. The overall process is known as Knowledge Discovery in Databases, (KDD). This process is comprised of many subprocesses which when linked together provide a firm foundation for knowledge acquisition from large databases. Many tools, techniques, and disciplines come together under the umbrella of KDD. Introduction Today, the topic of data mining has much interest in government, business, and research circles. With the growth of computer use within these areas has also come a greater desire to let the computers do the work that used to be done by humans. The problem, nowadays, is that the data that needs to be analyzed has become too large and cumbersome for one person or even teams of people to envision tackling without help from computers. These computers are no longer mere crunchers of numbers but now they find the patterns that the humans used to find. From this growth has arisen a vast body of knowledge concerned with this process of data analysis. As with much other information, the Internet is employed to make available the ever-growing body of information on this topic. Many general sources of information [a,b,c] are now online. These are updated and expanded upon almost a constant basis. The use of the Internet to disseminate and collect information is itself a consideration in this fi eld. The amount of information is expanding at such a rate that old methods of information disposal, such as paper journals and b... ...11) R. Lippman, "An Introduction to Computing with Neural Networks", IEEE ASSP Magazine: 4:2 (1987), pp.4-22. 12) C. Murphy, G. Koehler & H. Fogler, "Artifical Stupidity", The Journal of Portfolio Management: 23:2 (Winter 1997) pp.24-29. 13) J. Quinlan, "Induction of Decision Trees", Machine Learning: 1:1 (1986), pp.81-106. Hyperlinks a) http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/~anp/TheDataMine.html b) http://www.gmd.de/ml-archive c) http://info.gte.com/~kdd/ d) http://info.gte.com/~kdd/corporate.html e) http://info.gte.com/~kdd/datasets.html f) http://info.gte.com/~kdd/siftware.html g) http://www.almaden.ibm.com/stss/ h) http://www.research.microsoft.com/research/datamine/ i) http://www-aig.jpl.nasa.gov/kdd95/ j) http://www-aig.jpl.nasa.gov/kdd96/ k) http://www.neuronet.ph.kcl.ac.uk/ l) http://www.ics.uci.edu/AI/ML/Machine-Learning.html